Maya Civilization

The Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica. Originating in the Yucatán around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras. Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya developed astronomy, calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing. The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools. They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rain forest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizeable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater. The Maya were equally skilled as weavers and potters, and cleared routes through jungles and swamps to foster extensive trade networks with distant peoples.

Maya Civilization: The best-known of the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica.

Around 300 B.C., the Maya adopted a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings. This civilization developed into highly structured kingdoms during the Classic period, A.D. 200-900. Their society consisted of many independent states, each with a rural farming community and large urban sites built around ceremonial centres. It started to decline around A.D. 900 when - for reasons which are still largely a mystery - the southern Maya abandoned their cities. When the northern Maya were integrated into the Toltec society by A.D. 1200, the Maya dynasty finally came to a close, although some peripheral centres continued to thrive until the Spanish Conquest in the early sixteenth century.

Maya history can be characterized as cycles of rise and fall: city-states rose in prominence and fell into decline, only to be replaced by others. It could also be described as one of continuity and change, guided by a religion that remains the foundation of their culture. For those who follow the ancient Maya traditions, the belief in the influence of the cosmos on human lives and the necessity of paying homage to the gods through rituals continues to find expression in a modern hybrid Christian-Maya faith.

History

The Pre-Classical Period

The area where the Maya civilisation developed was inhabited from around the 10th millennium BC. The first Maya settlements occurred about 1800 BC, in the Soconusco region. This is in the modern-day state of Chiapas in Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean. Today, this is referred to as the Early Preclassic period. At the time, humans began to settle down permanently. They started to grow livestock. Pottery and small clay figures were made. They constructed simple burial mounds. Later they developed these mounds into step pyramids. There were other civilisations around, especially in the north. Examples are the Olmec, the Mixe-Zoque, and Zapotec civilisations. These people mostly lived in the area of the modern-day state Oaxaca. The exact borders of the Maya empire in the north are unclear. There were probably areas where Maya culture overlapped with other culures. Many of the earliest significant inscriptions and buildings appeared in this overlapping zone. These cultures and the Maya probably influenced one another.

The Classical Period

The Classic period (c. 250–900) CE (common era) witnessed the peak of large-scale construction and urbanism, the recording of monumental inscriptions, and a period of significant intellectual and artistic development, particularly in the southern lowland regions. They developed an agriculturally intensive, city-centered empire consisting of numerous independent city-states. This includes the well-known cities of Tikal, Palenque, Copán and Calakmul, but also the lesser known Dos Pilas, Uaxactun, Altun Ha, and Bonampak, among others. The Early Classic settlement distribution in the northern Maya lowlands is not as clearly known as the southern zone, but does include a number of population centers, such as Oxkintok, Chunchucmil, and the early occupation of Uxmal.

The most notable monuments are the pyramids they built in their religious centers and the accompanying palaces of their rulers. The palace at Cancuen is the largest in the Maya area, though the site, interestingly, lacks pyramids. Other important archaeological remains include the carved stone slabs usually called stelae (the Maya called them tetun, or "tree-stones"), which depict rulers along with hieroglyphic texts describing their genealogy, military victories, and other accomplishments.

The Maya participated in long distance trade with many of the other Mesoamerican cultures, including Teotihuacan, the Zapotec and other groups in central and gulf-coast Mexico, as well as with more distant, non-Mesoamerican groups. For example the Tainos in the caribbean, also archaeologists found gold from Panama in the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza. Important trade goods included cacao, salt, sea shells, jade and obsidian.

Post-Classical Period & Decline

In the north, development went on, form the 10th to about the 16th century. The influences from the outside left more traces in the Maya culture at that time. Some of the important sites in this era were Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Edzná, and Coba. At some point, the ruling dynasties of Chichen and Uxmal declined. Afterwards, Mayapan ruled all of Yucatán until a revolt in 1450. The area then degenerated into competing city-states until the Yucatán was conquered by the Spanish.

The Itza Maya, Ko'woj, and Yalain groups of Central Peten survived the "Classic Period Collapse" in small numbers. By 1250, they started to form competing city-states. The Itza maintained their capital at Tayasal (also known as Noh Petén). The remains of this city are thought to be below the modern city of Flores, Guatemala on Lake Petén Itzá. Tayasal ruled over an area extending across the Peten Lakes region, encompassing the community of Eckixil on Lake Quexil. The Ko'woj had their capital at Zacpeten. Postclassic Maya states also continued to survive in the southern highlands. One of the Maya kingdoms in this area, the Quiché, is responsible for the best-known Maya work of historiography and mythology, the Popol Vuh.

The Spanish started to conquer Maya lands. This took them much longer than with the Inca or Aztecs, because there was no capital city. This meant that when they had conquered one city, this had little influence on the whole empire. The last Maya states, the Itza city of Tayasal and the Ko'woj city of Zacpeten, were continuously occupied. They remained independent of the Spanish until late in the 17th century. They were finally subdued in 1697.

The Maya people did not disappear though. There are still about 6 million of them. Some are well-integrated, others continue speak one of the Maya languages and uphold their cultural heritage.

Maya Architecture

As unique and spectacular as any Greek or Roman architecture, Maya architecture spans several thousands of years. Yet, often the most dramatic and easily recognizable as Maya are the fantastic stepped pyramids from the Terminal Pre-classic period and beyond. Being based on the general Mesoamerican architectural traditions these pyramids relied on intricate carved stone in order to create a stair-step design. Each pyramid was dedicated to a deity whose shrine sat at its peak. During this "height" of Maya culture, the centers of their religious, commercial and bureaucratic power grew into incredible cities, including Chichen Itza, Tikal, and Uxmal. Through observation of the numerous consistent elements and stylistic distinctions, remnants of Maya architecture have become an important key to understanding the evolution of their ancient civilization.

Urban Design

As Maya cities spread throughout the varied geography of Mesoamerica, the extent of site planning appears to have been minimal; their cities having been built somewhat haphazardly as dictated by the topography of each independent location, Maya architecture tends to integrate a great degree of natural features. For instance, some cities existing on the flat limestone plains of the northern Yucatan grew into great sprawling municipalities, while others built in the hills of Usumacinta utilized the natural loft of the topography to raise their towers and temples to impressive heights. However, some semblance of order, as required by any large city, still prevailed.

At the onset of large-scale construction, a predetermined axis was typically established in congruence with the cardinal directions. Depending upon the location and availability of natural resources such as fresh-water wells, or cenotes, the city grew by connecting great plazas with the numerous platforms that created the sub-structure for nearly all Maya buildings, by means of sacbeob causeways. As more structures were added and existing structures re-built or remodeled, the great Maya cities seemed to take on an almost random identity that contrasts sharply with other great Mesoamerican cities such as Teotihuacan and its rigid grid-like construction.

At the heart of the Maya city existed the large plazas surrounded by their most valued governmental and religious buildings such as the royal acropolis, great pyramid temples and occasionally ballcourts. Though city layouts evolved as nature dictated, careful attention was placed on the directional orientation of temples and observatories so that they were constructed in accordance with Maya interpretation of the orbits of the stars. Immediately outside of this ritual center were the structures of lesser nobles, smaller temples, and individual shrines: the less sacred and less important structures had a greater degree of privacy. Outside of the constantly evolving urban core were the less permanent and more modest homes of the common people.

Classic Era Maya urban design could easily be described as the division of space by great monuments and causeways. In this case, the open public plazas were the gathering places for the people and the focus of the urban design, while interior space was entirely secondary. Only in the Late Post-Classic era did the great Maya cities develop into more fortress-like defensive structures that lacked, for the most part, the large and numerous plazas of the Classic.

Building Process

All evidence seems to suggest that most stone buildings existed on top of a platform sub-structure that varied in height from less than a meter, in the case of terraces and smaller structures, to 45 meters in the case of great temples and pyramids. A flight of often steep stone steps split the large stepped platforms on at least one side, contributing to the common bi-symmetrical appearance of Maya architecture. Depending on the prevalent stylistic tendencies of an area, these platforms most often were built of a cut and stucco stone exterior filled with densely packed gravel. As is the case with many other Maya relief, those on the platforms often were related to the intended purpose of the residing structure. Thus, as the sub-structural platforms were completed, the grand residences and temples of the Maya were constructed on the solid foundations of the platforms. As all structures were built, little attention seems to have been given to their utilitarian functionality and much to their external aesthetics; however, a certain repeated aspect, the corbeled arch, was often utilized to mimic the appearance and feel of the simple Maya hut. Though not an effective tool to increase interior space, as it required thick stone walls to support the high ceiling, some temples utilized repeated arches, or a corbeled vault, to construct what the Maya referred to as pibnal, or sweatbath, such as those in the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. As structures were completed, typically extensive relief work was added ... often simply to the covering of stucco used to smooth any imperfections; however, many lintel carvings have been discovered, as well as actual stone carvings used as a facade. Commonly, these would continue uninterrupted around an entire structure and contain a variety of artwork pertaining to the inhabitants or purpose of a building. Though not the case in all Maya locations, broad use of painted stucco has been discovered as well.

It has been suggested that, in conjunction to the Maya Long Count Calendar, every fifty-two years, or cycle, temples and pyramids were remodeled and rebuilt. It appears now that the rebuilding process was often instigated by a new ruler or for political matters, as opposed to matching the calendar cycle. However, the process of rebuilding on top of old structures is indeed a common one. Most notably, the North Acropolis at Tikal seems to be the sum total of 1,500 years of architectural modifications.

Building Materials

A surprising aspect of the great Maya structures is their lack of many advanced technologies that would seem to be necessary for such constructions. Lacking metal tools, pulleys and maybe even the wheel, Maya architecture required one thing in abundance: manpower. Yet, beyond this enormous requirement, the remaining materials seem to have been readily available. All stone for Maya structures appears to have been taken from local quarries. They most often utilized limestone, which remained pliable enough to be worked with stone tools while being quarried, and only hardened once removed from its bed. In addition to the structural use of limestone, much of their mortar consisted of sascab, a substance made from crushed, burnt, and mixed limestone that mimicked the properties of cement and was used just as widely for stucco finishing as it was for mortar. However, later improvements in quarrying techniques reduced the necessity for this limestone-stucco as their stones began to fit quite perfectly, yet it remained a crucial element in some post and lintel roofs. In the case of the common homes, wooden poles, adobe, and thatch were the primary materials; however, instances of what appear to be common houses of limestone have been discovered as well. It should be noted that one instance, in the city of Comalcalco, fired-clay bricks have been found as a substitute to stone because of a lack of substantial stone deposits. The cement was made by limestone that was in the stove for 10-50 minutes.

Notable Constructions

• Ceremonial platforms were commonly limestone platforms of typically less than four meters in height where public ceremonies and religious rites were performed. Constructed in the fashion of a typical foundation platform, these were often accented by carved figures, altars and perhaps tzompantli, a stake used to display the heads of victims or defeated Mesoamerican ballgame opponents.
• Palaces were large and often highly decorated, and usually sat close to the center of a city and housed the population's elite. Any exceedingly large royal palace, or one consisting of many chambers on different levels might be referred to as an acropolis. However, often these were one-story and consisted of many small chambers and typically at least one interior courtyard; these structures appear to take into account the needed functionality required of a residence, as well as the decoration required for their inhabitants stature.
• E-Groups are specific structural configurations present at a number of centers in the Maya area. These complexes are oriented and aligned according to specific astronomical events (primarily the sun’s solstices and equinoxes) and are thought to have been observatories. These structures are usually accompanied by iconographic reliefs that tie astronomical observation into general Maya mythology. The structural complex is named for Group E at Uaxactun, the first documented in Mesoamerica.
• Pyramids and temples. Often the most important religious temples sat atop the towering Maya pyramids, presumably as the closest place to the heavens. While recent discoveries point toward the extensive use of pyramids as tombs, the temples themselves seem to rarely, if ever, contain burials. Residing atop the pyramids, some of over two-hundred feet, such as that at El Mirador, the temples were impressive and decorated structures themselves. Commonly topped with a roof comb, or superficial grandiose wall, these temples might have served as a type of propaganda. As they were often the only structure in a Maya city to exceed the height of the surrounding jungle, the roof combs atop the temples were often carved with representations of rulers that could be seen from vast distances.
• Observatories. The Maya were keen astronomers and had mapped out the phases of celestial objects, especially the Moon and Venus. Many temples have doorways and other features aligning to celestial events. Round temples, often dedicated to Kukulcan, are perhaps those most often described as "observatories" by modern ruin tour-guides, but there is no evidence that they were so used exclusively, and temple pyramids of other shapes may well have been used for observation as well.
• Ball courts. As an integral aspect of the Mesoamerican lifestyle, the courts for their ritual ball-game were constructed throughout the Maya realm and often on a grand scale. Enclosed on two sides by stepped ramps that led to ceremonial platforms or small temples, the ball court itself was of a capital "I" shape and could be found in all but the smallest of Maya cities.

Historical Maya Sites

There are hundreds of significant Maya sites, and thousands of smaller ones. The largest and historically important include:

Cancuén | Chichen Itza | Kalakmul | Caracol | Chunchucmil | Dos Pilas | Uxmal | Coba | Comalcalco | Copán | Mayapan | Palenque | El Mirador | Tikal | Naachtún | Naranjo | Nakbé | Quiriguá | Piedras Negras | Uaxactún | Yaxha | Ceibal

Cancuén

Cancuén (Land of Serpents) is located in the Southern region of Sayaxché, Petén on La Pasión river, where it begins to be navigable, after crossing the Highlands in southern Petén, Guatemala. It is also known as the Entrance to the Mayan World, due to its location, and The Lost City, because it was ignored by archeologist as a minor site since 1909, but the recent excavations uncovered a Magnificent Classic site.

Cancuén is an important site due to its unique location and was occupied from 300 to 950 AD, reaching its maximum splendor during the late classic period Around 800 AD. The recent findings there, have been remarkable and range from fine pottery to jade workshops and beautiful carved images as Ball game Markers, and the largest and most impressive Mayan Palace discovered to date, build between 765 and 790 AD, by T'ah 'ak' Cha'an, the King that made Cancuén the dominant city in Southern Petén.

This Palace, is a massive 3 story high structure, with some 270,000 feet, (82,000 m2.) that has more than 170 rooms and 11 courtyards. In some areas the walls are up to 6 feet thick. (1.80 m.). The arches and vaults found in the numerous passageways are up to 20 feet high, (6 m.) giving this structure a complex labyrinth like shape. In the ball court were found 3 altars that shows T'ah 'ak' Cha'an playing the ceremonial ball game so sacred to the Mayan culture, also in the same ball court was discovered an impressive carved panel, weighing around 100 pounds (45 kg) showing him presiding a ceremony in the city of Machaquilá, a nearby city located in the upper La Pasión River that was its second capitol and then turned against Cancuén, 1 century after its reign. Kan Maax his successor had a distinct fate, being massacred along with more than 30 nobles by an unknown enemy, in a war that ended as soon as it begun.

Arthur Demarest from Vanderbilt University, and Tomás Barrientos from Universidad del Valle de Guatemala along with Federico Fashen a Guatemalan epigraphist, sponsored also by The National Geographic Society, are the main investigators in this site.

Fashen believes that this city gain power by merging with Royal families from Dos Pilas, and other cities such as Aguateca, aside its domain in the trading pne of the many Karst Hill near Cancuénof Jade, Pyrite (for mirrors) and Obsidian (for tool and warfare blades). This make its inhabitants wealthy, the investigators think, because of the jade implants found in the teeth of artisans, usually found only in nobles in other cities, the site has been mapped by Demarest and his team and is more than 3 sq. miles. Deamarest explains the lack of Pyramids due to the fact that the Karst Hills surroundings the site resembles the "Witz" that the Maya recreate in other sites, also the Candelaria caves nearby represent Xibalbá, thus making it better than the man made features.

Despite its protective walls, it was destroyed by the rulers of Machaquilá and Ceibal, located also in La Pasión River on the mid 9th century AD and thenSepalau Lagoons (One of four) abandoned, when it was found around 1900 the site was classified as a minor site, until 20 years ago when major discovers begin and surely will continue, due to the work of the archeologist, to visit this site You can go from Cobán to Chisec in Alta Verapaz, and enjoy the Candelaria Caves as well as the Sepalau lagoons nearby, by a paved highway from Sayaxché (3hrs), or by boat, also from Sayaxché, although is a very long river trip.

Dos Pilas

The site is located 17 km southwest from Sayaxché, Petén, and can be reached by 4 WD or hiking or on horseback, from Aguateca, or Punta de Chimino, where you can also rent ATVs, on Petexbatún lake, the protected area is 32 Km2, that also includes 2 other sites: Arroyo de Piedra, 4 Km. east, and Tamarindito 3 Km. west, also a number of caves that show ceremonial occupation are in this protected site. This site has 500 mounds and it owes its name to 2 natural springs (pilas) in the entrance, it was fortified with a wall made by dismantled temples and ball court, but could not protected it from its destruction. Thus it has few entrances, the Duende (elf) Pyramid is the tallest in La Pasión river region, but its main feature is in the hieroglyphic staircases uncovered recently in a Palace, that tells the history of the "Star wars" and rivalry between Dos Pilas (Yax Mutul), Calakmul, Naranjo and Tikal and its neighbors. This was the first great city to be abandoned, where the Classic Maya Collapse started.

The new excavation in Structure L5-49 hieroglyphic staircases, reveals that in the first quarter of the seventh century BALAJ CHAN K’AWIIL, the younger son of K’INICH MUWAANHN JOL, was born and sent to establish a Tikal presence at the newly founded site of Dos Pilas some 70 miles southwest of Tikal and just 2.5 miles from the already existing center of Arroyo de Piedra, an earlier capital in the Petexbatún, and roughly five miles further west from Tamarindito, another older kingdom in the region. The establishment of this new city in the midst of what was already an area occupied by a resident population could only be to establish an outpost of control by Tikal of the area in the La Pasión basin. A royal viceroy and enough soldiers could very well play that role.

The patterns of correlation in Pasión / Usumacinta kingdoms histories have now been made clear by the combined epigraphic evidence from Dos Pilas especially, and the unexpected discovery on 2005, of the central dynastic text of the Petexbatún kingdom on temple L5-49 at Dos Pilas. Combined with the previous evidence from the Petexbatún project and other recent excavations, these new findings show that the histories of the western kingdoms can no longer be explained in terms of local or even regional histories. This critical trade artery was, from the beginning of the Classic period, if not earlier, a target of control by the major interregional powers of the Maya world. Earlier culture-historical interpretations have not fully recognized the central role of these constant international interventions in the histories of this region.

In the past, accepted knowledge and conventional wisdom stated that around 650 A.D., a dynastic conflict ensued in Mutul (Tikal) resulting in the flight of some of Tikal’s elite and a member of the royal family to the Petexbatún city of Dos Pilas where they founded a kingdom that lasted for about 160 years and which for better or worse was "Predator State", a powerful militaristic state of the likes that not been seen, even for a war and strife civilization like the Maya. The famous warrior Wac' Chanil Ahau or Lady Six Sky that regain the Power in Naranjo (Sa'al) to the east was born here. the rulers of Dos Pilas even took Tikal's´ Emblem Glyph at its beginning.

In the course of that century and a half, Dos Pilas fought, captured or forced an alliance with several sites up and down the Pasión drainage and as far east as Machaquilá and south to Cancuén. (1,500 sq Miles). The reasons for this expansion were thought to be simply the result of the triumph of the new kings in a "civil war" between the two brothers who claimed Tikal’s crown.

While part of this scenario can be proven correct, the reasons and implications of the rivalry between Dos Pilas and Tikal certainly arise from far deeper causes. According to the above description, the trade route that used the Pasión-Usumacinta rivers was key to the history of the central and western Petén. The river route begins in Cancuén to the south, where it becomes navigable, and connects the highlands of Guatemala to the great capitals of kingdoms like Ceibal, Tres Islas, Altar de Sacrificios, Yaxchilán, Piedras Negras, and the Palenque region as it flows into the Gulf of México. This route was used from the late Preclassic on, and served to connect with the central Petén by trails, and to the Caribbean through the San Juan-Salsipuedes-Mopán river systems or through the Machaquilá-Mopán rivers.

In the forty years between the defeat of Tikal by Calakmul and later by Dos Pilas, the control of the riverine trade routes was in the hands of the Snake Kingdom, using Dos Pilas and others as proxies. However in 695, YUKNO’M YICH’AAK K’AHK’ of Calakmul (Kanal), was defeated by the new ruler of Tikal, JASAW CHAN K’AWIIL, NU’N U JOL CHAAK’s heir. This defeat of Calakmul and his strongest allied, Waka', restores Tikal’s preeminence in the Central Maya region, but never again in the southwest where Dos Pilas maintained its presence until its final downfall in 761 when K’AWIIL CHAN K’INICH was killed or exiled, and which signified the destruction of the site and the splintering of the hegemony into smaller kingdoms such as Aguateca, Ceibal, La Amelia. These smaller polities were not able to dominate the basin. Furthermore Calakmul’s demise resulted in conflicts between Yaxchilán and Piedras Negras in the lower Usumacinta, blocking the once free flow of goods through the river. By the end of the eighth century many of the riverine capitals and their kingdoms had been abandoned or were about to be and therefore trade between Petén, the upper Pasión and the highlands ceased and a change in production and interchange of ceramics for example, was redirected inland.. At the same time, Jade, pyrite, quetzal feathers, obsidian, and other exotic goods from the highlands became difficult or impossible to obtain, it was the begging of the Classic Maya Collapse. Another feature of this site are its Caves system with ancient use documented.

Calakmul

Calakmul (also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants) is the name given to site of one of the largest ancient Maya cities ever uncovered. It is located in the 1,800,000 acre Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region, 30 km from the Guatemalan border.

Originally coined by Cyrus L. Lundel, the name Calakmul denominates an ancient Maya city, an ecological reserve and the most recently-formed state municipality. The biosphere reserve was created in 1989 and covers an area of 723, 185 hectares, almost 13 percent of total state territory. It is therefore the fourth largest protected area in Mexico, and the largest of the tropical zones. The reserve is home to the different ecosystems characterizing the Campeche Petén, a continuation of the northern region of Guatemala and an area withwich it shares a considerable natural and cultural affinity. The high, middle and low forest, swamp zones, savannas and pastures are just a few of the environments wich allow the existence of a surprising variety of fauna. Samples have so far been collected from more than 800 plant species including the so-called Ramón u ox (Brosimun Alicastrum), a plant that was highly important food source for the Mayans. We should also mention the Palo Mulato or Chaka' (Bursera simaruba) a noteworthy source of resin; the Copal or Pom (Protium Copal) used to perfum ancient rituals; the sapodilla or Chaky'a (Achras Zapota), a tree providing wood, fruit and chicle; Pato de Tinte or Campeachy wood, and the valuable mahogany or Punab (Swietenia macrophylla). As far as fauna is concerned, over 250 birds species have been identified, and together with amphibians, reptiles, insects, and spiders, more than a hundredtypes of mamals have also been registered. The reserve is inhabited by tapirs, jaguars, spiders and howler monkeys, deer, buzzards, pumas, ocelots, wild cats and jaguarundis.

The 64 kilometers of road leading off of the Escárcega-Chetumal highway cross part of the reserve and allow us to catch a glimpse of this wonderful natural landscape. The archeological site is 318 kilometers from the state capital, covers an area of 70 square kilometers and has more than six thousand structures, most of wich are covered by jungle. Durig its apogee, Calakmul was the largest city of the Maya region and calculations suggest that it had approximately 37 percent more inhabitants than its rival, Tikal. The existence of the site was made known in 1931 by explorer Cyrus Longworth Lundell, an employee of the chicle firm, the Mexico Exploitation Company. He came across the city thanks to information provided by Manuel Osorno, a worker at the Company Buenfil plant and chicle worker foresman, Jesús García. Lundell called the site city of the Two Adjacent Mounds, a name clearly inspired by Structures I and II. These constructions are the higgest of their kind in the area and offer a striking spectacleas they emerge from the forest.

The first cycle of work took place in 1932 under the sponsorshipf the Carnegie Institute and was supervised by Sylvanus G. Morely. Subsequent excavation work has been done by Enrique Juan Palacios, karl Ruppert and John Denison, Tatiana Prouskouriakoff, Joyce Marcus, Peter Schmidt, William Folan and Ramón Carrasco.

Archeological research tells us that Calakmul was a great regional capital, populated during the mid Pre-classic period -900 to 300 BC-, as was its sister city, Mirador, in Guatemala. It would seem that Calakmul reached its apogee between 600 and 800 AD; the more than 100 stelae so far uncovered bear dates ranging from 431 to 790 AD.

If as suggested by recent research, Calakmul is really the Site of the Serpent Head Glyph, then one of its lords, Cu-ix, appears in certain inscriptions found at Yaxchilán against Tikal. As fas as the rivalry between Caracol and Naranjo was concerned, it seems that Cu-ix favored the former, and ordered the sacrifice of the governor or a noble from Naranjo, Guatemala. For a certain period of time, the Site of Serpent Head Glyph benefited from the alliance with Lord Kan II of Caracol, Belize. Nonetheless, its participation in the deadly game of sacrifice and war would later have dire consequences. There was a time when a governor of Calakmul known as Pata or Jaguar Claw was mentioned in inscriptions at different sites. His birth would seem to be registered on stele 9 at Calakmul and his rise to power depicted on the stele 30 at El Perú, Guatemala and on stele 13 at Dos Pilas, Guatemala. His eventual capture by governor Ah-Cacaw of Tikal is registered as a warrior saga on Temple I at Tikal.

It is clear that Calakmul wished to establish its domain over the entire Maya world. For example, in 599 and 611 AD, it attacked Palenque, one of its staunchest rivals; it also unleashed its fury upon Tikal in 657 AD. On August 5 of 695 AD, the two strongest jungle chieftaincies, Clakmul and Tikal, were involved in a bloody battle in wich lord Jaguar Claw was defeated. This event led to a certain decline of the city's power. Some of the structures at Calakmul show that different activities, especially those of a ritual nature, were performed there until the Post-classic period.

Visits to this site are restricted to a central nucleus built upon a great natural platform that was partially modified to allow the construction of base platforms, living quarters, pyramids, a ball court, a wall, various altars and numerous stelae. The eco-archeological concept applied to recent work has allowed the air of mistery and jungle beauty surrounding Calakmul to be maintained, a setting that its further enhanced by the song of tropical birds and innumerable butterflies.

The Great Square
Oriented along a north-south axis, the Great Square is reached through an entrance situated next to Structure VIII. According to archeologist Ramón Carrasco, this was a magical space used for ceremonies and rituals, where the Mayas attempted to reproduce the sacred landscape embodied in the myth surrounding the creation of the world. This interpretation states that the surface of the square represents the primordial sea and the surrounding pyramid bases are the sacred mountains where the Maya ancestors and gods lived. Meanwhile, the so-called "stelae with the images of important people, situated at the food at the mountains, symbolize the trees of life, between wich the governor functioned as an axis mundi or unifying factor between the peoples of the world. The stairways winding down from the peaks of the mountains of creation served as roads between the world of human beings and the higher dimension. Acces to the latter was attained by entering places of power such as the great square and cosmic openings like the ball court".

Structure VIII, a small quadrangular building characterized by certain architectural features wich suggest that it was once used for making astronomical measurements. The eastern side of the square is bordered by Structure IV, wich was possibly associated with administrative and palace matters. Divided into three sections, this building has 14 stelae that refer to a period ranging from 642 to 810 AD; the distribution of the stelae would seem to be related to the season of the year. Structure V divides the square into two sections and appears to serve as an altar for Structure II. Its northern stelae depict a royal couple and bear the date March 21, 623 AD. The frequent presence of feminine figures at this site suggest a certain degree of matriarchal dominance. This structure was used for ritual acts involving the legitimization of power; a representation of a noble sacrificed as part of a conquest ritual, was also found here.

The square is bordered to the south by the imposing Structure II, a building that rests upon a 140 meter square base as it rises up to a heigh of 55 meters; the four buildings situated on its summit form what might be described as a small acropolis. The stele bearing the earliest date at 431 AD, was discovered here. From the top of this building we can obtain a fine view of its counterpart, Structure I; this construction is 47 meters high and has yet to be restored. Calakmul takes its name from these two structures. The view from the top of these buildings is truly stunning: magnificent constructions emerge from the dense forest cover; these are the tallest structures in the state. Structure III or "The Palace" is hidden to the east of Structure II. This is a five-bodied construction with twelve rooms resting upon a pyramidal base. It is believed that the Calakmul elite lived in this building. In 1988, a burial site containing jade masks was found there.

The square is bordered to the west by Structure Iv. This is an astronomical complex related to the solstices and equinoxes ; its base also supports a further building wich looks onto the square and esplanade. Another royal couple is shown on stelae bearing the date March 26, 702 AD. Between Structures VI and VII -bordering the northern side of the square and where the first of the spectacular jade masks was found-, a Sacbé or Maya road leads off to the square of the Great Acropolis.

The great Acropolis
This area is home to Structure XIII, a building that contains an image of a woman holding a ceremonial rod. Visitors may also catch a glimpse of Structure XV, where in 1994 female remains dating from the year 800 AD were uncovered. Likewise, it is woth visiting the Ball court, next to wich there is a stele bearing a representation of a player. The Ball game was of course imbued with great religious significance; transformed into living gods, the players represented night and day, east and west, red and black, life and death. To the south of the Ball Court, we come to the Sacrifice Stone, an in situ rock decorated with bound, naked men. To the north, the Acropolis is bordered by the remains of a seven meters high wall wich is almost two meters thick. There is also another structure measuring approximately 200 meters, wich may have served for defensive purposes or as symbol of social division. In the outskirts of Calakmul, we come to the structure known as Los Baños or The Baths, where a series of rooms with steam baths were distributed around the pool.

Caracol

Caracol or El Caracol is the name given to a large ancient Maya site located in the Cayo District of the nation of Belize. Caracol is about 25 miles south of Xunantunich and San Ignacio Cayo, at an elevation of 1500 feet (460 m) above sea-level, in the foothills of the Maya Mountains. The name is Spanish for "The Snail"; the ancient Maya name may have been Oxhuitza. It is known as such due to the large numbers of these creatures found at the site on its visitation by A.H. Anderson, the then chief archaeologist to British Honduras, after its discovery in 1937 by Rosa Mai, a mahogany logger. The site was occupied as early as 1200 BCE, but had its greatest period of construction in the Maya Classic period, with over 40 monuments dated between 485CE to 889CE which record the dynastic sequence of the rulers.

Ancient Caracol was one of the largest ancient Maya cities, covering some 65 square miles (168 km²) with an estimated peak population of about 120,000, or possibly as many as 180,000 people. One monument here records a military victory over the army of Tikal in 562CE, where Caracol's Lord Water is shown to have captured and sacrificed Tikal's Double Bird. This event is seemingly concurrent with archaeological and epigraphic evidence indicating the beginning of the Tikal Mid-Classic Hiatus, when a seeming decline in Tikal's population, a cessation of monument building, and the destruction of certain monuments in the Great Plaza occurred as Caracol's population and urban development seemingly skyrocketed.

Modern History of Caracol
The site was first noted and documented in archaeological terms in 1937. More extensive explorations and documention of the site was undertaken by the University of Pennsylvania in 1951 and 1953. A project of archaeological excavations and restorations of the ancient structures at Caracol started in 1985 and is ongoing. The project is currently directed by Drs. Arlen and Diane Chase of the University of Central Florida in Orlando. The site is maintained by residential wardens from the Belize Institute of Archaeology, a sub-division of the National Institute of Culture and History, a government-run agency.

The site currently accommodates an average of 15-20 tourists per day, with greater numbers during the peak season around Easter. A museum to hold the large monuments found at the site is currently being constructed. A visitor center is already at the site, and recent developments include new directional and informational signs and a house for the residential staff.

The only road Caracol may be accessed by is paved for the last ten miles and leads to the Western Highway between San Ignacio and Belmopan and to Santa Elena.

Caana ("sky-palace") is the largest building at Caracol. It remains one of the largest man-made structures in Belize.

Chunchucmil

Chunchucmil was a large, sprawling pre-Columbian Maya city located in the western part of what is now the state of Yucatán, Mexico. Although the famous explorers John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood travelled within a few kilometers of Chunchucmil during their historic journey across the Yucatán Peninsula (they even met with the owner of the nearby Haciendas), the archaeological site went relatively unnoticed by Maya scholars for more than a century due to the fact that virtually no monuments (stelae) or other grand sculptures have been found there. The lack of royal monuments, combined with other archaeological data, may indicate that Chunchucmil was not a city ruled by a single divine king, as most other Maya polities. Instead, it may have been a commercial center, organized by various lineages and focused upon funnelling goods between regions such as the trade between the Gulf of Mexico and the interior of the Yucatán Peninsula.

Location
The site center is located ca. 27 km (16.8 mi) inland from the Gulf of Mexico and approximately half-way between the coast and the next largest archaeological site of Oxkintok. It was named in the late 1970s after the nearest modern settlement (the Hacienda and village of Chunchucmil), however the archaeological site is so large that it extends onto the ejido lands of at least five modern communities: Chunchucmil, Kochol, San Mateo, Coahuila and Halachó. The majority of the ancient Maya site is located within the municipality of Maxcanú, however a small portion of it is found on land pertaining to the municipality of Halachó.

Ecology & Environment
The site of Chunchucmil is located on a narrow band of semi-arid terrain that parallels portions of the western and northern coastlines in Yucatán and Campeche. This particular environmental zone is considered the driest in all of the Maya area, with less than 800 mm (31.5 in) of annual rainfall. Compounding these harsh conditions, nearly fifty percent of the surface around Chunchucmil is exposed limestone bedrock. Even when soils are encountered, they are rarely more than a few centimeters in depth. Vegetation in this region is generally considered scrub forest dominated by acacia and other drought-resistant species (similar to the European heathland). One of the mysteries surrounding Chunchucmil is how such a large city could have sustained itself in one of the poorest regions for agriculture.

However, the ancient city was situated at the edge of this semi-arid ecological zone, exactly where the dry Yucatecan plains dip and fracture into vast wetlands. Immediately to the west of Chunchucmil are found the seasonally inundated savannas, fresh water petenes (or ojos de agua), and eventually the brackish mangrove estuary where the Yucatán aquifer empties into the Gulf of Mexico near the ancient Maya coastal site of Canbalam. It is likely that ancient Chunchucmil was purposefully situated to take advantage of multiple ecological zones, including coastal resources such as the salt-beds of the Celestún peninsula, and to increase accessibility to the vigorous circum-peninsular canoe trade route of Pre-Columbian times, using Canbalam as its port of entry.

Etymology
The term "Chunchucmil" was originally used to name a freshwater well (Ch'en Chun Chukum), the central water source for the cattle ranch that eventually grew to become the historic henequen hacienda of Chunchucmil. Most wells in this region are named after animals or plants. In this case, the words Ch'en Chun Chukum literally mean "the well at the base of the Chukum tree" (Harvardia albicans). Local Maya speakers still refer to the modern village of Chunchucmil as Chun Chukum when speaking in their native tongue. The ancient Maya archaeological site was given the name Chunchucmil by archaeologists in the 1970s because that was the closest modern community to the site center. Local Maya villagers today do not have a single term to refer to the ruins, since the ancient city is so large that it encompasses most of their lands.

Size
The exact size of Chunchucmil is currently being studied using aerial photography, satellite imagery, and survey transects by the Pakbeh Regional Economy Project (who have been working at Chunchucmil since the mid 1990s, under the direction of Dr. Bruce H. Dahlin). Estimates range from 25 km² for the more compact urban settlement to around 64 km² for the city and its adjoining suburbs and farmsteads. In either case, this places the site of Chunchucmil among some of the largest and most densely settled ancient Maya polities.

Chronology
Ceramic data indicate that the Chunchucmil region was occupied from the Middle Preclassic (Middle Formative) through the Postclassic periods of Maya prehistory. However, widespread test excavations within the architectural groups of ancient Chunchucmil indicate that the city reached its apogee during the latter part of the Early Classic and the early part of the Late Classic, attaining its maximum spatial extent, population, and structural density. This period is defined in some areas as the "Middle Classic." Chunchucmil appears to have gone into decline during the latter part of the Late Classic. The Terminal Classic (or Puuc) occupation at Chunchucmil is ephemeral at best, and the Postclassic occupation at the site consisted of squatter-like settlement. A few early colonial homesteads have been found, but the region was largely abandoned between the Maya Postclassic period and the beginnings of the cattle ranches and henequen haciendas of historic and modern times.

Built Environment
Monumental Architecture: The Classic Period site center of Chunchucmil is dominated by over a dozen pyramids ranging in height from 8 to 18 m (26 to 60 ft) tall. Each pyramid is part of a structural arrangement referred to as a “quadrangle group” by members of the Pakbeh Regional Economy Project. Quadrangle groups consist of an enclosed courtyard flanked by a pyramid on one side (which faces inward towards the courtyard) and a number of ranged and compact structures along the remaining three sides. Within each quadrangle group's courtyard is a small central platform that is interpreted as a focal point of ritualized activities (such as an altar). Other ceremonies would have taken place within the temples atop each pyramid. With the temple pyramids and central platforms acting as loci of lineage-based ritual, quadrangle groups likely housed the upper-echelon elites of ancient Chunchucmil that may have been active in the socio-political, ideological and economic administration of the city. Of particular importance is that fact that each major quadrangle group is connected to the others through a network of sacbeob (stone causeways), suggesting an unknown degree of connectedness between the residing lineages and (potentially) cooperation or competition in ruling Chunchucmil. If this was indeed the case, Chunchucmil's political structure may have been roughly analogous to that suggested for the later Maya capital of Chichen Itza, referred to as a "multepal" system and characterized as rulership through council.

Residential Architecture: Residential architecture at Chunchucmil often follows the same pattern as the large quadrangle groups, with structures arranged on four sides of a small plaza. This arrangement conforms to the "patio cluster" or "patio group" model for Maya residential organization, where two or more structures, potentially housing multiple family units, face a shared patio or courtyard.

At Chunchucmil, these clusters of associated structures are encircled by low-lying stone walls (called albarradas), that demarcate domestic space by bounding the group’s residential lot or yard (called a solar). The entire unit, consisting of the architecture and the associated solar, is today referred to as an "albarrada group". Unlike at the vast majority of Maya sites, Chunchucmil’s albarrada groups contain clear boundaries between residential house lots and, as of result of this, researchers are better able to study such issues as settlement patterns, occupational density, population estimates, lineage structure, and social organization.

Many residential groups had a small temple or shrine (similar to the placement of the temple pyramids of their larger counterparts). These buildings served as loci for the performance of household rituals or other types of ideological practices. One such residential shrine that has been excavated and consolidated at the Lool Group revealed its form to be talud-tablero. This style of architecture is most famous at sites in Central Mexico, such as at the contemporaneous city of Teotihuacan. Beneath the stair of this shrine was a vessel that also replicated the pottery of that Central Mexican city. While this should not be used as evidence of direct Teotihuacan influence, it does suggest Chunchucmil's participation in the greater Mesoamerican communication sphere at the time of Teotihuacan's dominance. It should also be noted that all other structures excavated at Chunchucmil thus far lack demonstrable Teotihuacan influence.

Transportation Arteries: One of the distinguishing characteristics of Chunchucmil is its network of stone-lined paths. As mentioned above, the majority of residential lots are surrounded by albarradas (stone walls) that, when viewed on a map, give the site a honeycomb appearance. The space between adjacent albarradas form avenues or paths for foot traffic (called callejuelas, see photo) that radiate outward from the site center and into Chunchucmil's dense residential zone. By mapping these formations, researchers have been able to better understand the flow of traffic in and out of the site center as well as the relationship between Chunchucmil's central core, its residential urban sprawl, and its outlying peripheral settlement.

Beyond Chunchucmil, in the seasonally inundated western wetlands, researchers have found a network of rock alignments that connect Chunchucmil's periphery to other outlying settlements. Such rock alignments, called andadores by Maya archaeologists, would have provided sure footing through the wetlands, like stepping stones, leading travelers to various towns and resources in Chunchucmil's hinterland. While not all of these andadores have been followed to their final destinations, the general orientation of the longest alignments suggest that they may have functioned to connect Chunchucmil with the coast near Canbalam.

Barricade and Abandonment: One of the first features of Chunchucmil to gain widespread attention was a stone wall, visible in aerial photos taken by the Atlas project, that roughly encircles 350,000 square metres of the site center (including most of the major Quadrangle Groups. Early reconnaissance by the Pakbeh Regional Economy Project in the late 1990's found that the wall, which stood between 1 and 1.5 m tall and had a perimeter of 1.8 km, was incomplete. It formed a large "C" shape with a 340 m wide gap open to the west. Further mapping and excavation revealed that the wall runs above every major feature at the ancient site (crossing sacbeob', albarradas, and many residential groups). Based upon the law of superposition (an archaeological concept borrowed from the field of geology), this meant that the large barricade was likely the last feature to be built at the site. Furthermore, the stones used to create the barricade were clearly robbed from nearby structures (rather than freshly quarried). Given this data, it has been hypothesized that the barricade was constructed rapidly at the end of Chunchucmil's history, possibly to protect the remaining inhabitants from an invasion that arrived before the wall could be completed, leading to the ultimate demise of the ancient city.

Uxmal

Uxmal (Yucatec Maya: Óoxmáal) is a large pre-Columbian ruined city of the Maya civilization in the state of Yucatán, Mexico. It is 78 km south of Mérida, Yucatán, or 110 km from that city on Highway 261 towards Campeche, Campeche), 15 km south-southeast of the town of Muna.

Uxmal is pronounced "Oosh-mahl". The place name is Pre-Columbian and it is usually assumed to be an archaic Maya language phrase meaning "Built Three Times", although some scholars of the Maya language dispute this derivation.

Ancient History
While much work has been done at the popular tourist destination of Uxmal to consolidate and restore buildings, little in the way of serious archeological excavation and research has been done here, therefore the city's dates of occupation are unknown and the estimated population (about 25,000 people) is at present only a very rough guess subject to change upon better data. Most of the architecture visible today was built between about 700 and 1100.

Maya chronicles say that Uxmal was founded about 500 by Hun Uitzil Chac Tutul Xiu. For generations Uxmal was ruled over by the Xiu family, was the most powerful site in western Yucatan, and for a while in alliance with Chichen Itza dominated all of the northern Maya area. Sometime after about 1200 no new major construction seems to have been made at Uxmal, possibly related to the fall of Uxmal's ally Chichen Itza and the shift of power in Yucatan to Mayapan. The Xiu moved their capital to Maní, and the population of Uxmal declined.

After the Spanish conquest of Yucatán (in which the Xiu allied themselves with the Spanish), early colonial documents suggest that Uxmal was still an inhabited place of some importance into the 1550s, but no Spanish town was built here and Uxmal was soon after largely abandoned.

Modern History of the Ruins
The site, located not far from Mérida beside a road to Campeche, has attracted many visitors since the time of Mexico's independence. The first detailed account of the ruins was published by Jean Frederic Waldeck in 1838. John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood made two extended visits to Uxmal in the early 1840s, with architect/draftsman Catherwood reportedly making so many plans and drawings that they could be used to construct a duplicate of the ancient city. Désiré Charnay took a series of photographs of Uxmal in 1860. Some three years later Empress Carlota of Mexico visited Uxmal; in preparation for her visit local authorities had some statues and architectural elements depicting phallic themes removed from the ancient façades.

Sylvanus G. Morley made a map of the site in 1909 which included some previously overlooked buildings. The Mexican government's first project to consolidate some of the structures from risk of collapse or further decay came in 1927. In 1930 Frans Blom led a Tulane University expedition to the site which included making plaster casts of the façades of the "Nunnery Quadrangle"; using these casts a replica of the Quadrangle was constructed and displayed at the 1933 World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois. Unfortunately, the plaster replicas of the architecture were destroyed following the fair, but some of the plaster casts of Uxmal's monuments are still kept at Tulane's Middle American Research Institute. In 1936 a further Mexican government repair and consolidation program was begun under José Erosa Peniche.

Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom visited on 27 February 1975 for the inauguration of the site's sound & light show; when the presentation reached the point where the sound system played the Maya prayer to Chaac, a sudden torrential downpour fell upon the gathered dignitaries, despite the fact that it was the middle of the dry season.

Two hotels and a small museum have been built within the remains of the ancient city.

Description of the Site
Even before the restoration work Uxmal was in better condition than many other Maya sites thanks to being unusually well built. Much was built with well cut stones set into a core of concrete not relying on plaster to hold the building together. The Maya architecture here is considered matched only by that of Palenque in elegance and beauty. The Puuc style of Maya architecture predominates. Thanks to its good state of preservation, it is one of the few Maya cities where the casual visitor can get a good idea of how the entire ceremonial center looked in ancient times.

Some of the more noteworthy buildings include:

• The Governor's Palace, a long low building atop a huge platform, with the longest façades in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.
• The Adivino or Pyramid of the Magician, a fine pyramid temple unusual in several ways. The layers of the step pyramid are oval, rather than the usual rectangular or square shape. It was a common practice in Mesoamerica to build new temple pyramids atop older ones, but here a newer pyramid was built centered slightly to the east of the older pyramid, so that on the west side the temple atop the old pyramid is preserved, with the newer temple above it.
• The Nunnery Quadrangle (a nickname given to it by the Spanish; it was a government palace) is the finest of Uxmal's several fine quadrangles of long buildings with elaborately carved façades on both the inside and outside faces.
• A large Ballcourt for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, which an inscription there informs us was dedicated in 901 by the ruler Chan Chak K'ak'nal Ajaw, also known as Lord Chac before the decipherment of his corresponding name glyphs.

A number of other temple-pyramids, quadrangles, and other monuments, some of significant size, and in varying states of preservation, are also at Uxmal. These include North Long Building, House of the Birds, House of the Turtles, Grand Pyramid, House of the Doves, and South Temple.

The majority of hieroglyphic inscriptions were on a series of stone stelae unusually grouped together on a single platform. The stelae depict the ancient rulers of the city, and they show signs that they were deliberately broken and toppled in antiquity; some were re-erected and repaired. A further suggestion of possible war or battle is found in the remains of a wall which encircled most of the central ceremonial center.

A large raised stone pedestrian causeway links Uxmal with the site of Kabah, some 18 km to the south. Archaeological research at the small island site of Uaymil, located to the west on the Gulf coast, may have served as a port for Uxmal and provided the site access to the circum-peninsular trade network.

Coba

Coba (Cobá in the Spanish language) is a large ruined city of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. It is located about 90 km east of the Maya site of Chichen Itza, about 40 km west of the Caribbean Sea, and 44 km northwest of the site of Tulum, with which it is connected by a modern road.

The City
Coba is located around two lagoons. A series of elevated stone and plaster roads radiate from the central site to various smaller sites near and far. These are known by the Maya term "sacbe" (plural "sacbeob"). Some of these causeways go east to the Caribbean coast, and the longest runs over 100 km to the west to the site of Yaxuna. The site contains several large temple pyramids, the tallest, known as Nohoch Mul, being 42 meters in height.

A number of longer sacbeob, radiate out from Coba to other Maya sites in the area, the longest being over 100 km long, running west to the site of Yaxuna.

Coba is estimated to have had some 50,000 inhabitants (and possibly significantly more) at its peak of civilization, and the built up area extends over some 80 km². The site was occupied by a sizable agricultural population by the 1st century. The bulk of Coba's major construction seems to have been made in the middle and late Classic period, about 500 to 900, with most of the dated hieroglypic inscriptions from the 7th century. However Coba remained an important site in the Post-Classic era and new temples were built and old ones kept in repair until at least the 14th century, possibly as late as the arrival of the Spanish.

Comalcalco (Tabasco)

Comalcalco is both a modern-day city and municipality about 45 miles (60 km) northwest of Villahermosa in the Mexican state of Tabasco and a Pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site. The literal English translation of "Comalcalco" is "In the house of the comals". A comal is a pan used to prepare tortillas.

The present-day city of Comalcalco reported a 2005 census population of 39,865 inhabitants, while the municipality of which it serves as municipal seat had a population of 173,773. The city is the third-largest community in the state of Tabasco, behind Villahermosa and Cárdenas. The municipality, which has an area of 723.19 km² (279.225 sq mi), includes many smaller outlying communities, the largest of which are Tecolutilla, Chichicapa, Aldama, and Miguel Hidalgo.

The site of Comalcalco, whose coordinates are 18°16'N 93°10'W, is notable for two characteristics. First, it is the westernmost known Maya settlement. Second, and due to a dearth of locally available limestone (the primary material used in architectural construction), the city's buildings were made from fired-clay bricks held together with mortar made from oyster shells. The use of bricks at Comalcalco was unique among Maya sites, and many of them are decorated with iconography and/or hieroglyphs. Important architectural features include the northern plaza and two pyramids, the Gran Acropolis and the Acropolis Este.

History of Comalcalco
When the River Mezacalapa was drying up, it was called River “Seco” (dry). In the middle of the riverbod is located an elevation in which some families were living various in small ranches. There were a reasonable number of habitants living together. So the Government of the State of Tabasco made the decision to establish a town there, on October 1820. The town received the name of “San Isidro de Comalcalco”. This decree was signed by Juan Mariano Sale, Antonio Solana and Fausto Gordillo, all members of the congress. The decree was published by Don Marcelino Margalli, governor of the state and Jose Mariano Troncoso, secretary of the state. The town is located in Jalpa County. On November 14 of 1834 was created the first government of Colmalcalco.

Palenque

Palenque (Bàak' in Modern Maya) is a Maya archeological site near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas, located about 130 km south of Ciudad del Carmen. It is a medium-sized site, much smaller than such huge sites as Tikal or Copán, but it contains some of the finest architecture, sculpture, roof comb and bas-relief carvings the Maya produced.

History of Palenque
Much of the Early Classic history of the city still awaits the archaeologist's trowel. However, from the extent of the surveyed site and the reference to Early Classic rulers in the inscriptional record of the Late Classic, it is clear Palenque's history is much longer than we currently know. The fact that early ajaw (king or lord) and mythological beings used a variety of emblem glyphs in their titles indeed suggests a complex early history. For instance, K'uk' B'ahlam the supposed founder of the Palenque dynasty is called a Toktan Ajaw in the text of the Temple of the Foliated Cross.

The famous structures that we know today probably represent a rebuilding effort in response to the attacks by the city of Calakmul and its client states in 599 and 611. One of the main figures responsible for rebuilding Palenque and for a renaissance in the city's art and architecture is also one of the best-known Maya Ajaw, K'inich Janaab' Pakal (Pacal the Great), who ruled from 615 to 683. He is best known through his funerary monument, dubbed the Temple of Inscriptions after the lengthy text preserved in the temple's superstructure. At the time Alberto Ruz Lhuillier excavated Pakal's tomb it was the richest and best preserved of any scientifically excavated burial then known from the ancient Americas. It held this position until the discovery of the rich Moche burials at Sipan, Peru and the recent discoveries at Copan and Calakmul.

Beside the attention that K'inich Janaab' Pakal's tomb brought to Palenque, the city is historically significant for its extensive hieroglyphic corpus composed during the reigns of Janaab' Pakal his son K'inich Kan B'ahlam and his grandson K'inich Akal Mo' Naab', and for being the location where Heinrich Berlin and later Linda Schele and Peter Mathews outlined the first dynastic list for any Maya city. The work of Tatiana Proskouriakoff as well as that of Berlin, Schele, Mathews, and others initiated the intense historical investigations that characterized much of the scholarship on the ancient Maya from the 1960s to the present. The extensive iconography and textual corpus has also allowed for study of Classic period Maya Mythology and ritual practice.

Early Classic Period
The first ajaw, or king, of B'aakal that we know of was K'uk Balam (Quetzal Jaguar), who governed for four years starting in the year 431. After him, a king came to power, nicknamed Gasparín by archaeologists. The two next kings were probably Gasparín's sons. Little was known about the first of these, B'utz Aj Sak Chiik, until 1994, when a tablet was found describing a ritual for the king. The first tablet mentioned his successor Ahkal Mo' Naab I as a teenage prince, and therefore it is believed that there was a family relation between them. For unknown reasons, Akhal Mo' Naab I had great prestige, so the Kings who succeeded him were proud to be his descendants.

When Ahkal Mo' Naab I died in 524, there was an interregnum of four years, before the following king was crowned en Toktán in 529. K'an Joy Chitam I governed for 36 years. His sons Ahkal Mo' Naab II and K'an B'alam I were the first kings who used the title Kinich, which means the great son. This word was used also by later kings. B'alam I was succeeded in 583 by Yok Iknal, who is supposedly his daughter. The inscriptions found in Palenque document a battle that occurred under her government in which troops from Calakmul invaded and sacked Palenque, a military feat without known precedents. These events took place on April 21, 599.

A second victory by Calakmul occurred some twelve years later, in 611, under the government of Aj Ne' Yohl Mat, son of Yol Iknal. In this occasion, the king of Calakmul entered Palenque in person, consolidating a significant military disaster, the which was followed by an epoch of political disorder. Aj Ne' Yohl Mat was to die in 612.

Late Classic Period
B'aakal began the Late Classic period in the throes of the disorder created by the defeats before Calakmul. The texts written in 680s are pessimistic: "Lost is the divine lady, lost is the king. These sources also tell of some fundamental rites that were not actually done. Mentions of the government at the time have not been found.

It is believed that after the death of Aj Ne' Yohl Mat, Janaab Pakal, sometimes called Pakal I, took power thanks to a political agreement. Janaab Pakal assumed the functions of the ajaw (King) but never was crowned. He was succeeded in 612 by his daughter, the queen Sak K'uk', who governed for only three years. It is considered that the dynasty was reestablished from then on, so B'aakal retook the path of glory and splendor.

The son of Janaab Pakal is the most famous of the Mayan kings, K'inich Janaab' Pakal, also known as Pakal the Great. Starting at 12 years of age, he reigned in Palenque from 615 to 683. Known as the favorite of the gods, he carried Palenque to new levels of splendor, in spite of having come to power when the city was at a low point. Pakal married the princess of Oktán in 624 and had two children.

During his government, most of the palaces and temples of Palenque were constructed; the city flourished as never before, eclipsing Tikal. The central complex, known as The Palace, was enlarged and remodeled on various occasions, notably in the years 654, 661, and 668. In this structure, is a text describing how in that epoch Palenque was newly allied with Tikal, and also with Yaxchilan, and that they were able to capture the six enemy kings of the alliance. Not much more had been translated from the text.

After the death of Pakal in 683, his older son K'inich Kan B'alam assumed the kingship of B'aakal, who in turn was succeeded in 702 by his brother K'inich K'an Joy Chitam II. The first continued the architectural and sculptural works that were begun by his father, as well as finishing the construction of the famous tomb of Pakal. Furthermore, he began ambitious projects, like the Group of the Crosses. Thanks to numerous works begun during his government, now we have portraits of this king, found in various sculptures. His brother succeeded him continuing with the same enthusiasm of construction and art, reconstructing and enlarging the north side of the Palace. Thanks to the reign of these three kings, B'aakal had a century of growing and splendor.

In 711, Palenque was sacked by the realm of Toniná, and the old king K'inich K'an Joy Chitam II was taken prisoner. It is not known what the final destination of the king was, and it is presumed that he was executed in Toniná. For 10 years there was no king. Finally, K'inich Ahkal Mo' Nab' III was crowned in 722. Although the new king belonged to the royalty, there is no reason to be sure that he was the direct inheritor direct of K'inich K'an Joy Chitam II. It is believed, therefore, that this coronation was a break in the dynastic line, and probably K'inich Ahkal Nab' arrived to power after years of maneuvering and forging political alliances. This king, his son, and grandson governed until the end of the century. Little is known about this period, except that, among other events, the war with Toniná continued, where there are hieroglyphics that record a new defeat of Palenque.

Architecture
Palace: The Palace, actually a complex of several connected and adjacent buildings and courtyards built up over several generations on a wide artificial terrace. The Palace houses many fine sculptures and bas-relief carvings in addition to the distinctive four-story tower.

Temple of Inscriptions: The Temple of Inscriptions was begun perhaps as early as 675 as the funerary monument of K'inich Janaab' Pakal. The temple superstructure houses the second longest glyphic text known from the Maya world (the longest is the Hieroglyphic Stairway at Copan). The Temple of Inscriptions records approximately 180 years of the city's history from the 4th through 12th K'atun. The focal point of the narrative records K'inich Janaab' Pakal's K'atun period-ending rituals focused on the icons of the city's patron deities prosaically known collectively as the Palenque Triad or individually as GI, GII, and GIII.

In 1952 Alberto Ruz Lhuillier removed a stone slab in the floor of the back room of the temple superstructure to revealing a passageway (filled in shortly before the city's abandonment and reopened by archeologists) leading through a long stairway to Pakal's tomb. The tomb itself is remarkable for its large carved sarcophagus, the rich ornaments accompanying Pakal, and for the stucco sculpture decorating the walls of the tomb. Unique to Pakal's tomb is the psychoduct, which leads from the tomb itself, up the stairway and through a hole in the stone covering the entrance to the burial. This psychoduct is perhaps a physical reference to concepts about the departure of the soul at the time of death in Maya eschatology where in the inscriptions the phrase ochb'ihaj sak ik'il (the white breath road-entered) is used to refer to the leaving of the soul. The much-discussed iconography of the sarcophagus lid depicts Pakal in the guise of one of the manifestations of the Maize God emerging from the maw of the underworld. A similar scene of emergence is seen on the San Francisco Capstone which depicts an enthroned Maize God sprouting from the portal maw.

Temples of the Cross Group: The Temple of the Cross, Temple of the Sun, and Temple of the Foliated Cross. This is a set of graceful temples atop step pyramids, each with an elaborately carved relief in the inner chamber depicting two figures presenting ritual objects and effigies to a central icon. Earlier interpretations had argued that the smaller figure was that of K'inich Janaab' Pakal while the larger figure was K'inich Kan B'ahlam. However, it is now known based on a better understanding of the iconography and epigraphy that the central tablet depicts two images of Kan B'ahlam. The smaller figure shows K'inich Kan B'ahlam during a rite of passage ritual at the age of six (9.10.8.9.3 9 Akbal 6 Xul) while the larger is of his accession to kingship at the age of 48. These temples were named by early explorers; the cross-like images in two of the reliefs actually depict the tree of creation at the center of the world in Maya mythology.

• The Aqueduct constructed with great stone blocks with a three-meter-high vault to make the Otulum River flow underneath the floor of Palenque's main plaza.
• The Temple of The Lion at a distance of some 200 meters south of the main group of temples; its name came from the elaborate bas-relief carving of a king seated on a throne in the form of a jaguar.
• Structure XII with a bas-relief carving of the God of Death.
• Temple of the Count another elegant Classic Palenque temple, which got its name from the fact that early explorer Jean Frederic Waldeck lived in the building for some time, and Waldeck claimed to be a Count.

The site also has a number of other temples, tombs, and elite residences, some a good distance from the center of the site, a court for playing the Mesoamerican Ballgame, and an interesting stone bridge over the Otulum River some distance below the Aqueduct.

El Mirador

Just north of Tikal, in Petén, northern Guatemala, lies the Mirador Basin region, a 2,156 square kilometers (525,100 acre) of pristine tropical rainforest surrounding the oldest and largest Maya pyramids, city and temple complexes in the Americas. It contains among other sites to El Mirador, the largest ancient city of the Mayan world and Tintal the second largest.

The five major cities in the basin are: El Mirador, Tintal, Xulnal, Nakbé and Wakná. But there are at least 26 more cities, dating from the pre-classic 1000 BC to 300 AD, making it the first organized political and economic state in the American Continent, (The Kan Kingdom), at the same time than the Olmec Culture, earlier thought as the first true civilization, there are archeological proof that the Maya in Mirador developed a writing, astronomical, agricultural, economical, warfare, and all the needed skills that made the Maya, the most developed and complicate society, thousands of years before previously thought, confirmed by the findings in two preclassic sites near the Mirador Basin, San Bartolo with its Preclasssic Murals and Cival with its giant Stucco Masks. The grandest Mayan city of all, a 15-square-mile collection of buried temples and pyramids, is called El Mirador, or "The Lookout," in Spanish. El Mirador, was linked by limestone causeways to dozens of smaller cities, which at times battled other Mayan regions for supremacy. El Mirador provides the richest undisturbed laboratory on the origins of the Maya civilization and its earliest kingdoms, culture, history and environment, and the reasons of the collapse of a civilization of nearly one million people, walls enclosed strategic sectors of the ceremonial center, so there is some evidence to suggest that war aimed at the attack of ceremonial centers concerned some lords in the Preclassic. However, these defensive works are still a rarity in early Maya centers. Indeed, fortifications do not become a commonplace until the Terminal Classic period, nearly a thousand years later.

A Late Classic occupation in the seventh and eighth century AD. Occurred in the Mirador Basin, although never approaching the levels seen during the Late Preclassic heyday of the site. El Mirador, along with Nakbé and other smaller sites in the Mirador Basin, were the only known sources of the famous Codex-style ceramics, that is among the most accomplished artistic traditions ever developed in the Maya world and featuring scenes of mythology and legendary history. The tall pyramids constructed by ancient Snake Kings made El Mirador and the other major sites in the Mirador Basin, focus of pilgrimage and ritual, since many of the Preclassic monuments were found literally half covered with the shattered remains of Late Classic ceramic vessels.

Warfare seems to have played a part in the ultimate downfall of El Mirador as a large wall surrounding the western portion of the site appears to have been built in the Early Classic. One of the only documented battlefields of the ancient Maya world was found atop the Tigre pyramid where dozens of green obsidian spear points were found scattered atop debris indicating that the battle occurred after the pyramid had already fallen into disrepair. This suggests that the forces of Siyah K’ahk’ of Tikal overran this area likely some time in the late fourth century AD.

A recently discovered bedrock sculpture found in a quarry in La Muerta, 2 Km away from the Main Ceremonial Center of El Mirador, contains the name and title of an Early Classic lord of the Snake Kingdom. The earliest examples of the Snake Pollity, Emblem Glyph, (later held by kings of Calakmul, some 40 Km. north), come from El Mirador and other sites in the Mirador Basin, The kingdom ruled by El Mirador in the Preclassic appears to have been anciently named Kan, “Snake”.

El Mirador has been only partly mapped, but the scale of its central public architecture is vast beyond anything undertaken by Hasaw- Cha'an-K'awiil of Tikal or his son Yax'kin Cha'an K'awiil, or any other contemporaries anywhere, during the Classic apogee of Maya civilization. There are numerous other very large Preclassic centers in north central Petén, some of which are fairly close to El Mirador. While these are impressive concentrations of temples and plazas, they are dwarfed by El Mirador and probably were subordinate to that center. To put it simply, the settlement patterns around El Mirador are beginning to take on the appearance of large satellite communities near a dominant capitol, at least in Late Preclassic times. But if El Mirador indeed constituted a primordial hegemonic state, it was the extraordinary exception and not the rule in early Maya civilization. In later Classic Maya history, it might have served as the half remembered glorious precedent for the imperial ambitions of Tikal and other Petén cities; but it did not divert Classic Maya society from its principal political form, the relatively small polity ruled by a single major royal capitol.

El Mirador is also one of the oldest Maya cities along with Nakbé, Kaminal Juyú, in the highlands, Tak'alik Abaj', in the pacific lowlands and the Largest City in the Mayan world, dating 1000 years before Uaxactún and Tikal, (the Pre-classic) a time that just a few years ago was little known and believed to be almost like an stone age culture, without any building capabilities, due to recent findings in excavations, burials and monuments dates, this site will change the known history of the Mayan culture, and the archeologist will have to re-write it. The Kings that ruled El Mirador were equal in power to Ramses II and Keops. There have been recently found a site with mural paintings in excellent condition and similar to those in San Bartolo, this site name and precise location, has not been disclosed yet in order to protect it, but soon it will be announce to the world.

Twenty-six other Preclassic sites have been identified In the basin, including Nakbé, La Muralla, Waknab, La Manteca, Tintal, Xulnal, Wiknal, Chan Kan, Wakna', Paixban, Naachtún, Dos Lagunas and many more still unnamed, but wonderful Mayan cities south and east to El Mirador, they were connected by huge Cuseways called Sacbe'ob, or Sacbé in singular, meaning white roads, due to its stucco cover, some 6 mt High and 40 mt. wide, and up to 40 Km long, clearly seen on Satellite photographs. The 40 kilometer causeway between El Mirador and Tintal was scientifically excavated, and is the longest in Mesoamerica. There may be as many as 30 smaller sites, waiting to be uncovered. There are no modern roads in the region and many sites are a two or three-day hike from the nearest town of Carmelita, a former Chliclero outpost, some 400 inhabitants, that now are being trained as guides and helpers in the excavations. From Carmelita to El Mirador, you will visit 9 big Preclassic Mayan cities.

Excavation of El Mirador and other sites has begun only in recent decades. The Mirador Basin, part national park and part multi-use area, is also a target for illegal forestry activities, this Basin is still a virgin forest with 6 different types of Tropical forest and has a large variety of fauna, it is by far the largest virgin tropical ecosystem besides the Amazonia in Brazil.

The archaeologist Richard Hansen and his team have been working more that 20 years there, and in 2001 initiated "The Mirador Basin Project", which aims to gain permanent archaeological and environmental protection for the region while spurring economic growth through ecotourism development. He has The National Geographic Society and the Novella Foundation, support among other institutions and individuals, both in Guatemala and outside the country.

NGS made a Documentary for TV named "Dawn of the Maya", (Candidate to an Oscar in 2005). in witch he defined this basin as the oldest and more extensive Mayan site of the world. If you have been in Tikal, just imagine the central plaza in Mirador that is 4 times larger and has two enormous pyramids, among hundreds of buildings, one of them known as La Danta (Tapir), witch is, by far, the most massive building discovered to date any where in the world, with an amazing base (that could accommodate 36 football fields): 1,089 feet (330 mt.) by 2,046 feet (620 mt.) and 237.6 feet tall (72 mt.) with a volume of 2,800.000 cubic mt. that make the Great Pyramid in Egypt smaller by 200,000 cubic meter, its base is larger that the Central Acrópolis in Tikal, and up today, Only its topmost pyramid has been fully excavated. It is the Tallest Building in Pre columbian America. This complex has 4 Platforms, and 3 temples in the uppermost being the central the tallest with 24 meter, in front of this massive pyramid and in the first platform is the Pavas group, with several smaller temples and the Puma group. (See Gallery). The city also has 2 other huge complexes, El Tigre, a 182 Foot high Triadic complex, Tikal's central plaza would fit in its base, and Los Monos, and ether 15 large Temples, 3 ball courts and several plazas, among its major features. Several Jade and Obsidian artifacts have been found here.

Dr. Richard Hansen Believes that this was the Capitol of the mythic Kingdom of Kan, that was considered a legend among the Classic Maya, (like Camelot), because it was the origin of their culture. the site was partially reoccupied in the Late Classic and is the only source of the Codex Style pottery, dated around 700 AC those classic inhabitants used some Temples to build houses jeopardizing the large pyramids, but in recent consolidation works, archeologists manage to stabilize them.

Hansen says that the spectacular rise of El Mirador over Nakbé, was related to that site's better supply of water and especially to its more defensible position. The important public architecture at El Mirador was constructed on the brink of a steep escarpment, which provided protection to the settlement's northern and western flanks, while the east is protected by swamps (bajos).

Dr. Hansen also has demonstrated that the Preclassic Maya suffered ca 150 AD, a Collapse similar to that of the Classic and for the same reasons, Warfare, Deforestation and inability to feed the people, due to the extensive forest slash for firewood in order to make stucco for their colossal Pyramids, (One average size temple would need some 400 Ha. of forest), the poor soil of the area deforested, fill the bajos and cut the Preclassic Maya intensive agricultural system.

El Mirador, was abruptly abandoned around A.D. 150 (R.D. Hansen 1990; Howell and Copeland 1989). The abandonment of El Mirador and the surrounding area appears to have been relatively rapid and enduring. Small populations occupied the region during the Late Classic period (A.D. 600-900), but did not rival the cultural apogee of the Late Preclassic period. The pollen data from Puerto Arturo corroborate this abandonment. The paleo environmental evidence for this abandonment is similar to that of the Middle Preclassic recovery phase. Increased values of grasses and weeds, including maize pollen, from ca. 300 B.C. to A.D. 100, mark the intervening disturbance period. After A.D. 100, these grasses began a steep decline and minimum values persist from ~A.D. 130-225. Thus, it appears the Preclassic abandonment was underway shortly after A.D. 100. (David Wahl, 2005)

The project gained the support of the Guatemalan government, and in 2002, agreed to create the Regional System for the Special Protection of Cultural Heritage as a means of protecting archaeological sites within the Maya Biosphere Reserve. The 242,811 Hectares (580,000 acres) of the Mirador-Río Azul, reserve as a "Special Archaeological Zone" are officially named as the Mirador Basin. The Mirador Basin Project, has gained considerable national and international support in the past years, there is a project funded by the IDB (Inter-American Development Bank) and it is poised to transform El Mirador into the most-visited archaeological site and tourist attraction in Mesoamérica.

Mirador “Is a world wonder – and needs to be protected. We may be talking about the single most ambitious conservation and development project related to protected areas proposed in the Americas.” states Roan McNab, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) in Travel & Leisure magazine, June, 2005.

Tikal

Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography) is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Maya civilization. It is located in the El Petén department of Guatemala. Now part of Guatemala's Tikal National Park, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a popular tourist spot. The closest large towns are Flores and Santa Elena, about 30 kilometers away.

Tikal was one of the major cultural and population centers of the Maya civilization. Though monumental architecture at the site dates to the 4th century BC, Tikal reached its apogee during the Classic Period, ca. 200 AD to 900 AD, during which time the site dominated the Maya region politically, economically, and militarily while interacting with areas throughout Mesoamerica, such as central Mexican center of Teotihuacan. There is also evidence that Tikal was even conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century A.D. Following the end of the Late Classic Period, no new major monuments were built at Tikal and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned. These events were coupled with a gradual population decline, culminating with the site’s abandonment by the end of the 10th century.

History
Tikal was a dominating influence in the southern Maya lowlands throughout most of the Early Classic. The site, however, was often at war and inscriptions tell of alliances and conflict with other Maya states, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Dos Pilas, Naranjo, and Calakmul. The site was defeated at the end of the Early Classic by Caracol, who rose to take Tikal's place as the paramount center in the southern Maya lowlands. It appears another defeat was suffered at the hands of Dos Pilas during the middle 7th century, with the possible capture and sacrifice of Tikal's ruler at the time (Sharer 1994:265).

Tikal hiatus: The "Tikal hiatus" refers to a period between the late 6th to late 7th century where there was a lapse in the writing of inscriptions and large-scale construction at Tikal. This hiatus in activity at Tikal was long unexplained until later epigraphic decipherments identified that the period was prompted by Tikal's comprehensive defeat at the hands of the Caracol polity in A.D. 562 after six years of warfare against an alliance of Calakmul, Dos Pilas and Naranjo. The hiatus at Tikal lasted up to the ascension of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I (Ruler A) in A.D. 682. In A.D. 695, Yukno’m Yich’Aak K’ahk’ of Calakmul (Kanal), was defeated by the new ruler of Tikal, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, Nu’n U Jol Chaak’s heir. This defeat of Calakmul restores Tikal’s preeminence in the Central Maya region, but never again in the southwest Petén, where Dos Pilas maintained its presence.

The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists commonly sub-divide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic.

Modern history
As is often the case with huge ancient ruins, knowledge of the site was never completely lost in the region. Some second- or third-hand accounts of Tikal appeared in print starting in the 17th century, continuing through the writings of John Lloyd Stephens in the early 19th century (Stephens and his illustrator Frederick Catherwood heard rumors of a lost city, with white building tops towering above the jungle, during their 1839-40 travels in the region). Due to the site's remoteness from modern towns, however, no explorers visited Tikal until Modesto Méndez and Ambrosio Tut visited it in 1848. Several other expeditions came to further investigate, map, and photograph Tikal in the 19th century (including Alfred P. Maudslay in 1881-82) and the early 20th century.

In 1951 a small airstrip was built at the ruins, which previously could only be reached by several days travel through the jungle on foot or mule. From 1956 through 1970 major archeological excavations were made by the University of Pennsylvania. In 1979 the Guatemalan government began a further archeological project at Tikal, which continues to this day.

Site Characteristics
Environmental: The ruins lie on lowland rainforest. Conspicuous trees at the Tikal park include gigantic ceiba (Ceiba pentandra) the sacred tree of the Maya; tropical cedar (Cedrela odorata), and mahogany (Swietenia). Regarding the fauna, agouti, coatis, gray foxes, spider monkeys, howler monkeys, Harpy Eagles, Falcons, ocellated turkeys, guans, toucans, green parrots and leaf-cutting ants can be seen there regularly. Jaguars Jaguarundis and Cougars are also said to roam in the park.

The largest of the Classic Maya cities, Tikal had no water other than what was collected from rainwater and stored in underground storage facilities (termed chultuns). Archaeologists working in Tikal during the last century utilized the ancient underground facilities to store water for their own use. The absence of springs, rivers, and lakes in the immediate vicinity of Tikal highlights a prodigious feat: building a major city with only supplies of stored seasonal rainfall. Tikal prospered with intensive agricultural techniques, which were far more advanced than the slash and burn methods originally theorized by archeologists. The reliance on seasonal rainfall left Tikal vulnerable to prolonged drought, which is now thought to play a major role in the Classic Maya Collapse.

Etymology: The name Tikal, 'place of the voices' in Itza Maya, is not the ancient name for the site but rather the name adopted shortly after its discovery in the 1840s (Drew 1999:136). Hieroglyphic inscriptions at the ruins refer to the central area of the ancient city as Yax Mutal or Yax Mutul. The kingdom as a whole was simply called Mutal or Mutul, which is the reading of the "hair bundle" Emblem Glyph seen in the accompanying photo. Its meaning remains obscure, although some scholars think that it is the Hair knot of the Ahau or ruler.

The Site
There are thousands of ancient structures at Tikal and only a fraction of these have been excavated after decades of archaeological work. The most prominent surviving buildings include six very large Mesoamerican step pyramids, labeled Temples I - VI, each of which support a temple structure on their summits. Some of these pyramids are over 60 meters high (200 feet). They were numbered sequentially during the early survey of the site.

The majority of pyramids currently visible at Tikal were built during Tikal’s resurgence following the Tikal Hiatus (i.e., from the late 7th to the early 9th century). It should be noted, however, that the majority of these structures contain sub-structures that were initially built prior to the hiatus.

Temple I (Temple of Ah Cacao or Temple of the Great Jaguar) was built around C.E. 695; Temple II or the Moon Temple in C.E. 702; and Temple III in C.E. 810. The largest structure at Tikal, Temple IV, is approximately 70 meters (230 feet) tall. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid’s summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to C.E. 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple V dates to about C.E. 750, and is the only one where no tomb has been found. Temple VI, also known as the Temple of the Inscriptions, was dedicated in C.E. 766.

Str. 5C-54, in the southwest portion of Tikal’s central core and west of Temple V, is known as the Lost World Pyramid. A 30 meter high "True Pyramid", with stairways in 3 sides and stucco masks, dating to the Late Preclassic, this pyramid is part of an enclosed complex of structures that remained intact through and un-impacted by later building activity at Tikal. The organization of this complex adheres to the themes defined for E-Groups.

The ancient city also has the remains of royal palaces, in addition to a number of smaller pyramids, palaces, residences, and inscribed stone monuments. There is even a building which seemed to have been a jail, originally with wooden bars across the windows and doors. There are also seven courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, including a set of 3 in the "Seven Temples Plaza" a unique feature in Mesoamerica.

The residential area of Tikal covers an estimated 60 km² (23 square miles), much of which has not yet been cleared, mapped, or excavated. A huge set of earthworks has been discovered ringing Tikal with a 6 meter wide trench behind a rampart. Only some 9km of it has been mapped; it may have enclosed an area of some 125 km square. Population estimates place the demographic size of the site between 100,000 and 200,000.

Recently, a project exploring the earthworks has shown that the scale of the earthworks is highly variable and that in many places it is inconsequential as a defensive feature. In addition, some parts of the earthwork were integrated into a canal system. The earthwork of Tikal varies significantly in coverage from what was originally proposed and it is much more complex and multifaceted than originally thought.

Naachtún

The ancient city of Naachtún real name was Masuul and it is situated in the heart of the Maya region, in northern Guatemala. It was rediscovered by western archaeologists in 1922, and remains one of the most remote sites in the Maya area. In fact, it has been the subject of only a few fleeting visits over the past 80 years.

Although presently considered a very remote place, during the Late Pre-Classic (400 BC - AD 250) and Classic Maya period (AD 250 - 900), Naachtún was very much in the thick of things. Naachtún lies on the north-eastern edge of the Mirador Basin, a broad area approximately 40 km. in diameter, where the earliest development of complex society in the Maya area took place. Río Azul another large Maya site is to the east. The Naachtun Archaelogical Project directed by Dr. Kathryn Reese-Taylor, University of Calgary, Canada and Co-Director Lic. Martin Rangel Guillermo, from the Universidad de San Carlos, Guatemala, are working at the site and uncovering important data about the Classic Maya Culture and political relationships.

Many of the great cities in the Mirador Basin did not survive the end of the Preclassic period; Naachtún was one of the few, apparently, that did. This transition from the Late Preclassic to the Classic period equals in complexity the Classic Maya Collapse, yet its causes and immediate aftermath remain elusive.

Because if its successful navigation through this transition period, Naachtún is the key to understanding the changes that took place during the Preclassic-to-Classic shift.

Early Classic: But Naachtún did more than merely survive these tumultuous events, apparently it thrived. The Early Classic period (AD 250-600) was one of exponential growth at Naachtún. Indeed, the size of the Classic period city, the grandeur of its temples and palaces, and the presence of over 40 carved Stelas indicate that Naachtún grew to be the centre of a powerful kingdom.

The site lies about 44km (27 miles) south-south-east of Calakmul, and 65km (40 miles) north of Tikal, the two 'superpowers' of the Classic Maya world. lying directly between two such powerful entities, Naachtún held not only a strategic position, but also a vulnerable one during the frequent wars of the time, and control of the city must have been seen as a necessary prologue to any attempt by Tikal or Calakmul to attack the other.

Wartime affiliations: The dates recorded on the Naachtún monuments span a period from AD 504 to 762, suggesting that the city flourished for most of the Classic period. Yet because of its geographical position, Naachtún was tied either to Tikal or Calakmul for much of its existence, changing its warfare affiliation several times during its history.

Naachtún central position and fluctuating political affiliation can be deduced from the architectural diversity found at the site. Buildings in the Tikal tradition are evident in the main plaza, while the extensive, rambling, elite residential section of Naachtún is reminiscent of the Calakmul palace precinct.

The size of Naachtún, the grandeur of its public architecture, and the presence of over 40 stelae, indicate that it was the centre of a very powerful kingdom during the Classic period. Yet the name of the kingdom, as recorded in hieroglyphic texts, remained a mystery until the mid 1990s, when the epigrapher Nikolai Grube discovered the ancient Mayan name of Naachtún.

In a fragmentary passage on Stela 1, he found an 'emblem glyph' (a hieroglyphic compound), which included the names of Classic period Mayan kingdoms. According to the emblem glyph, Naachtún ancient name was 'Masuul'.

References to the Masuul kingdom are found not only in hieroglyphic inscriptions at Naachtún, but also on scattered monuments throughout Guatemala and Tabasco. Taken as a whole, the inscriptions on these monuments record a history for the Masuul kingdom that spans from AD 486 to 761, and includes details of familial relationships, warfare events and funerary rites.

The earliest dated reference to the Masuul kingdom is found on Tikal's Stela 10. Dating to 486, the passage states that the capital of the Masuul kingdom (Naachtún) was conquered by Chak Tok Ich’aak the young king from Tikal. The defeated king was brought before the Tikal king 'seven days later' and may well be the captive shown on the front of Stela 10.

The early hostilities between Naachtún and Tikal were almost certainly the result of power struggles with Calakmul, Tikal's bitter enemy. Earlier on it seems probable that Naachtún had been in Calakmul's sphere of influence. Yet during the early fifth century, Tikal went on the offensive against Calakmul, and pushed northwards in a series of campaigns aimed at enlarging and consolidating its northern frontier. The last reference to Masuul, in also in Tikal, on altar 5, that describes the funeral of an important Masuul´s Lady, that was attended by the kings of Tikal and Masuul.

Copán

The ancient ruins of Copan lie in the Motagua on the Rio Copan near Guatemala. They lie on the far southern frontier of the Maya expansion. In this fertile valley now lies a city of about 3000, a small airport, and a winding road. The ancient ruins of Copan lie a mile east of the present town (Copan).

Copan is considered a classic Maya center with ruins covering about forty acres including an acropolis with five plazas. The Maya of the Copan Valley are said to have occupied the valley starting in the Preclassic Period (1300- 900 BC). They lived there until the time of the Spanish Conquest. From the beginning, Copan was geographically, economically and culturally distinct from other Maya lowland sites.

The Maya started building Copan during the fifth century. The first dated monument at Copan is 465 AD. During the next 200 years, the valley underwent drastic changes. Their economy transformed from hunting and fishing to farming. In 667 AD, the Astronomical City was built. This is where most of the temples and other structures were located. During the next few decades, all efforts went into building the Astronomical City and Old Copan was put on hold.

By the 5th century, it is believed that Copan society was ruled by a chiefdom . Elite citizens lived in plaster coated, dressed masonry structures near major public buildings. They had access to fine imported goods, such as ceramic and shell. The rest of Copan's population lived further away in cobblestone constructions. These people were buried with relatively modest ceramic offerings. However, there is clear evidence of institutionalized rulership (or chiefdom organization) in the form of the early hieroglyphic monuments; and in the public architecture of the earliest ball court.

The largest known source of jade in Mesoamerica is within three day's walk of Copan, located in the Middle Motagua Valley, Guatemala. It was used to make tools. It has been found in virtually all ancient households in the valley. The green volcanic tuff (jade), used in dressed stone for buildings and sculptures, is found throughout the valley. Granite from the eastern part of the valley was used to make the grinding stones for processing maize into flour. Kaolin, from north of the valley, was used in manufacturing and decorating pottery. There were several small limestone deposits from which lime could be produced. The river brought other useful kinds of stones, including flint, used for producing chipped stone tools. These stones came from areas upstream in the mountains.

In 725 AD, Copan underwent another drastic change. The pottery had changed style. This marked the end of the Middle Period and the beginning of the Great Period of Copan. During this time, Copan became the most brilliant city both in architecture and sculpture, if not the most powerful in the Old Empire. Copan became second only to Tikal in accuracy of astronomical calculations and in the number of hieroglyphic inscriptions. Trade increased with the Guatemalan Highlands, Salvador and the Peten-British Honduran region.

Copan was abandoned and as of yet, we still do not know for what reason. On May 26, 800 AD, the last hieroglyphic was recorded at Copan. The priests left and most of the people followed them. They are believed to have taken most of their riches with them because few were ever found. There was no sign of war or any other reason for them to leave. Some people did remain, however. Findings have found that small camps around the city still remained but the majority of the population left with the priests.

Don Diego Garcia de Palacio rediscovered Copan. He wrote to the King of Spain about his findings on March 8, 1576. The first scientific expedition into Copan was in 1834 by Colonel Juan Galindo. In 1839, John Lloyd Stevens purchased the site for fifty dollars. Until a century ago, Copan was buried in a deep tropical jungle. The forest was then cut down at the end of the nineteenth century to plant tobacco and corn. This was said to please the gods because according to legend, they were all heavy smokers (Robicsek).

The site now consists of a level plain eight miles long and two miles wide enclosed by the hills of the Rio Copan. On the plain are stone houses, drainage ditches, and burial mounds. On the hills are fallen columns and altars. In the center of the valley are the main clusters of ruins called the Main Group or the Astronomical City. This is composed of pyramids, courts, temples and other structures. One of the structures is the Hieroglyphic Stairway. This stairway is composed of 2500 hieroglyphics. However, their meaning is not yet known because an earthquake caused the steps to tumble down.

Another interesting site is the Copan ball court. It is two parallel buildings framing a carefully dimensioned rectangle. Here they played a competitive game known to the Maya for centuries. There are also many other statues and columns that are contained in the Archeological City (Hellmuth).

No one knows for sure why the priests left Copan at the height of its history. All we know is that at its peak, Copan was one of the most powerful cities in the Maya nation.

Mayapan

Mayapan is a site located on the Yucatan Peninsula forty-seven kilometers southeast of Merida, the capital of the State of Yucatan, Mexico. The ruins are linked to the end of the Post Classic Period, considered the last of the pre-Hispanic development of the Mayans. Mayapan is said to have been founded in 1007 by Kukulkan. Kukulkan ruled before the formation of a joined government, which lasted two hundred years. Under the leadership of Hunac Ceel, the alliance dominated the Yucatan. Although the city was founded in 1007, the city was not dominant until the 1200's after the fall of Chichen Itza. In 1194, Mayapan broke the alliance and captured Chichen Itza and Uxmal forming the League of Mayapan. The city of Mayapan was the most important center of the Maya civilization before the arrival of the Spanish. It was the capital of a Maya Confederation, which included Chichen Itza and Uxmal.

The city of Mayapan is a walled city covering about four square kilometers centering on one central plaza in which the main buildings are located. Not many Maya cities were built surrounded by walls which is a clear hint of the unstable situation the city faced with its neighboring cities. The city once contained within its walls and fortifications some three thousand dwellings and is believed to have been inhabited by nearly 12,000 people. The quality of construction and decoration in Mayapan is less pronounced than that of Chichen Itza. The rulers of the time may have been more interested in warfare than pleasing the gods with extravagant temples.

Followers of the Toltec ruler Cuculcan constructed a round temple different from all others in the country. The temple somewhat resembles the larger Caracol at Chichen Itza. The temple has four entrances and is thought to have been used in the worship of Ehecatl, the wind god. The grounds contain scattered statues and numerous decaying stepped pyramids.

Mayapan continued to prosper between 1250 and 1450. The mid 1400's marked the end of the city when a rebellion overthrew Mayapan and nearly destroyed the city.

Naranjo

Naranjo is an ancient city of the Maya civilization in the Petén Basin region of the central Maya lowlands. It is located in the present-day department of Petén, Guatemala about 10 km west of the border with Belize. It was the capital of the Classic Maya kingdom of Saal The ancient Classic Maya language name for the city was Wak Kab'nal and Maxam. The divine owner of the city, its patron, and the founder of the dynasty was a deity with a yet-undeciphered name, nicknamed "Black Square-Nosed Beastie" (possibly read as Ik' Miin)

The history of Saal is highly interesting in terms of several major disturbances in the dynastic rule when allegiances and identities of local kings were subject to change. Nothing is known about the Early Classic history of Naranjo. The sites of Sufricaya and Holmul to the north of Naranjo were involved in the establishment of the new political order in Peten after the arrival of Siyaj K’ahk’ (Siyah K'ak') in A.D. 378. It is plausible to assume that Naranjo might also be under the sway of Siyaj K’ahk’s hegemony and later Mutal (Tikal) rulers. If there were any monuments from that time, they were destroyed and/or cached.

There was a sudden outburst of inscribed monuments in the reign of Ajwosa Chan K’ihnich (A.D. 546-615) who acceded to the throne as a vassal of another Maya ‘superpower’ – Kanal (Calakmul and Dzibanche) – about the time when it expanded its political influence at the expense of Mutal. However, within the next three generations of rulers, Saal did not prove to be a faithful vassal and was subject to attacks by Kanal and its major vassal, K’antu’ (Caracol). It seems that one of such attacks resulted in a compete interruption of the royal line of Naranjo about A.D. 680, what led to a re-foundation of the dynasty by Calakmul that orchestrated a marriage between a princess from the line of the rulers of Dos-Pilas (Calakmul vassals and claimants to the throne of Tikal) and an unidentified nobleman, maybe of local Naranjo origin. The princess gave birth to the next king of Naranjo and de facto ruled the kingdom of Saal for quite some time in her own right as a queen-mother. It seems that at that time the kingdom reached the peak of its influence that extended from Lake Yaxha to Western Belize (west-east) and from Holmul to Ucanal (north-south). However, as the power of Calakmul waned, rulers of Saal had to confront a resurgent Mutal and that confrontation ended in a complete defeat of Saal in A.D. 744. However, Naranjo once again rose as major regional power in the last quarter of the eighth century A.D. Eventually, the kingdom fell in the mid-ninth century A.D. for reasons that are not yet understood

The regal-ceremonial core of the site of Naranjo, the seat of its rulers and the houses of its gods, is about 1 km² and includes over 112 structures grouped in six triadic complexes, two ‘palace’ compounds, one E-group and two ball courts.

The site was rediscovered by Teoberto Maler in 1905. He spent 3 months exploring, mapping, and photographing the site. In the 1910s further investigations of the site were made by Sylvanus G. Morley and Oliver Ricketson. There are 45 carved and inscribed monuments most of which were documented by Ian Graham who also mapped the central area of the site.

Naranjo was one of the earliest sites to suffer from large-scale looting, as sculptures were illegally removed for sale to collectors. By the 1920s, many of the ancient sculptures had already disappeared. The problem worsened during the 1960s, when many of the site's large sculptures were smashed into fragments by looters in order to remove and sell the fragments. Some of the city's monuments are known today only from photographs taken by the early explorers; even when the looted monuments are subsequently brought back into circulation, their uncertain provenance makes it very difficult for them to be placed in an appropriate context.

European and North American collectors continued to support the removal of artifacts from the site, the problem intensifying during and after the Guatemalan civil war of the 1960s and 1970s. It is claimed that the military governments of the time were complicit. Even now, archaeologists excavating the site are from time to time forced to abandon their work because of the lawless activities of the well armed looters.

Nakbé

Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites, rivaled by El Mirador. Nakbe is located in the The Mirador Basin, in El Petén region of Guatemala, approximately 13 kilometers south of the Largest Maya city of El Mirador. Excavations at Nakbe suggest that habitation began at the site during the Early Formative period (circa 1400 BC) and continued to be a large site until its collapse during the Terminal Formative period (100-200 BC). The fall of Nakbe and El Mirador took place at roughly the same time.

Discovery & Excavation
The site was first discovered in 1930 by aerial photos taken of the region, but excavations of the site did not take place until 1962. Archaeologist Ian Graham was the first person to start excavations, but it wasn’t until the 1980s and 90s that real excavation began by UCLA’s Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, and the Institute of Anthropology and History of Guatemala. The combined efforts of these two groups resulted in the RAINPEG Project, which was headed by Dr. Richard D. Hansen. One of the main focuses of the RAINPEG Project was to investigate the limestone quarries in the area of Nakbé

Nakbe was a key site to the Maya because of its extensive quarry system of limestone, a key element to the building of the many large temples.

The RAINPEC Project spent much of its energy excavating and studying the tools that were used in limestone excavation and preparation. They had unearthed 23 tools including bifacial axes, picks, and hammer stones, all of which were made of chert. The researches then replicated these tools to see what the methods of mining and shaping the limestone were. Not only did they come to realize that chert was an excellent tool for precision cutting of limestone, but these experiments shed light on how the Maya not only harvested the limestone, but how they shaped it to use for their elaborate complex architectural building.

Architecture
Nakbe had established monumental architecture as early as the eighth century BC, with some platforms 18 m (59 ft) high. Around 1200 BC modest villages were leveled and filled to serve as platform foundations for large new buildings, indicating that the platform construction and erection of monumental architecture were planned, simultaneous events. There are many buildings at Nakbe and they are divided into three groups. Two of these groups, called East and West, were constructed during the formative periods and the third group, called Codex, was constructed during the reoccupation of the site in the late classic period. The most impressive and largest of the buildings at Nakbe is a pyramid called Structure 1. Flanked by two large stucco masks and topped with three triadic style roofed structures, Structure 1 is both grand and beautiful. Causeways were also built to connect all these buildings. Maya causeways were paved with crushed white stone, which inspired their Mayan name, sacbe (“white way”) The Kan Causeway at Nakbe was 4 m (13 ft) above adjacent ground level in some places. One causeway was also built that connected Nakbe with El Mirador.

Artifacts Found at the Site
The site center has yielded large quantities of middle Preclassic ceramics. Pottery found at the site includes red-on-cream items, multi-colored bowls, incised bowls, narrow-necked jars with coarsely painted bands, and a wide variety of monochrome vessels that are red, cream, or black. Many tecomates (jars with narrow openings but without necks) were found. Also found were numerous fragments of figurines depicting a wide variety of human and animal forms. Shells through which holes were ground were a common find at the site. Many were Strombus shells, a type of artifact unique to the first part of the middle Preclassic at Nakbe, Uaxactun, Tikal, and other sites where similarly dated deposits are located.

The shells reflect one of the earliest major imports into the interior of northern Guatemala, and Richard Hansen believes they and similar exotic imports, such as Jade and obsidian (a volcanic glass from which sharp tools could be fashioned), played an important role in the formation of an increasingly complex society. The demand for these materials, mainlly from Kaminal Juyú, in the Central Highlands of Guatemala, whether for ideological or economic reasons, and the mechanisms of procurement, transportation, and distribution that met that demand, may have required the development of administrative and governmental organizations at an earlier stage in this region than in areas where those commodities were more readily available.

Fairly direct evidence of developing differences in social and economic status includes human incisors with inlaid disks of jadelike stone, found in deposits dating to about 2,800 years ago. Such dental decorations are known to have been associated with elite status in later Maya periods. Archaeologists also found a middle Preclassic ceramic shard with a portion of an incised profile that displays the sloping forehead characteristic of later Maya elite society. This was a frontal cranial deformation that resulted from binding the head in infancy.

Quiriguá

Located in Izabal, Guatemala, 2 miles from the main highway to Puerto Barrios, lies Quiriguá a late Classic Maya city, best known for its stelas. Quiriguá was a great Maya city during the Classic period. The site's founder of the ruling dynasty was Tutum Yol K'inichm and it lasted from 550 to 850 A.D. During that time period Quiriguá controlled the Jade and Obsidian trade to the Caribbean coast and the region's highlands and lowlands. It was also during these years that Quiriguá had a fierce rivalry with its neighbor, Copán, which it conquered in 738 A.D. During this conquest the ruler of Quiriguá, Butz' Tiliw or Cauac Sky, captured and sacrifice in the Grand Plaza Copán's Waxaklahun Ubah K'awil or 18 Rabbit.

In AD 775, the Maya lord K’ak’ Tiliw Chan Yoat (Fire Burning Sky Lightning God) set up an immense stone monument in the center of his city. The unimaginative archaeologists who discovered the stone called it Stela C. This monument bears the longest single hieroglyphic description of the Maya Creation Myth, noting that it took place on the Maya calendar's day 13.0.0.0.0, 4 Ahaw, 8 Kumk’u, a date corresponding to August 13, 3114 BC on our calendar. This date appears over and over in other inscriptions throughout the Maya world.

Quiriguá is a very large site, however, most of the ruins are untouched and require restoration. The most impressive part of these ruins is the amount of fine detail in the architecture and finely carved stone stelas. There are twelve stelas. The largest of which is monolithic (carved from one block of stone). It is 35 feet high, 5 feet wide and 5 feet thick and weighs over 60 tons. Also the altars of Quiriguá are famous, carved in the form of animals representing deities, and thus named "Zoomorphs". Maudsley, was the first to noted that the Zoomorph D in Quiriguá, was above tree stones, Linda Schelle links it to the Cosmology of the "Turtle of creations and the 3 Tuns (stones)"

The monuments at Quiriguá are unique in several other respects. Few other sites display full frontal views of the human figure, a later departure from the traditional profile depictions. Quiriguá also has numerous excellent examples of a fairly rare form of 'longhand' Mayan glyphs which use full animal and human figures, instead of smaller symbols or variations on abbreviated 'head-type' glyphs to represent the same meanings. There are only three other known examples of the full-figured glyphs in the entire Mayan world. The most striking of the sculptures at Quiriguá, however, are the zoomorphs, great unquarried sandstone boulders carved to represent animals. The boulders are covered with figures and glyphs in the characteristic Quiriguá mixture of low and high relief, and represent some of the most intricately carved designs in the Maya world. Nothing like them is found at any other site. Acoording to Maudsley, the most beautiful Mesoamerican sculpture, is Zoomorph P and its altar, Altar O, dedicated in 795 AD, sit before the stairway of a ruined palace facing the main plaza at Quiriguá. It stands seven feet high and over eleven feet wide, covered with figures, masks, and small glyphs, the altar depicts a god emerging from Xibalbá. The altar or Zoomorph O, which flanks Zoomorph P in front of the ruined palace, is exceptional for its flamboyantly executed dancing figure and a series of large full-figure glyphs, bearing enormous numbers in the dates (Up to 400 million Years).

These imposing sandstone obelisks were commissioned by Maya kings to mark important royal events and as means of self-promotion. Each sculpture bears a king's likeness adorned with symbolic ornaments and encircled by gods and sacred animals. The sides and backs are etched with Maya calendar glyphs giving dedication dates and those of other significant political and military happenings. The stela also acted as billboards advertising the kings' standings with the Maya gods, along with tidbits of personal history. One of Quiriguá monuments, Stela D, is so wonderfully decorated that it was chosen to appear on Guatemala's 10-cents coin. Stela C is the only known monument that shows the Maya creation date, August 14. 3114 BC, or 3 Ahau, 8 Comkú.

The Maya somehow transported enormous stones through the jungle from distant quarries, apparently without the aid of either wheeled carts or beasts of burden. Artists then used only rudimentary stone tools to execute the intricate carvings, before raising the ponderous sculptures to their present vertical positions. Stela E at Quiriguá weighs an astonishing 65 tons and stretches 10.5 meters in length, with sculptures covering its 8-meter panels. It is estimated that, beginning in A.D. 750, a new stela was installed at Quiriguá every five years (Hotún) until A.D. 805.

Quiriguá is thought to have functioned as an important way station between Copán and Tikal. Goods were shuttled to and from the Caribbean along the Motagua river, and throngs of merchants and buyers probably once rubbed shoulders with regal stele in the city's Great Plaza.

Most of the steles were erected during the sixty-year reign of Butz' Tiliw or Cauac Sky, Quiriguá's greatest ruler. Not surprisingly, his image stares out impassively from seven of the nine monoliths of the site. In AD 738, Cauac Sky captured the king of Copán, Waxaklahun Ubah K'awil or 18 Rabbit, and had him decapitated in the Great Plaza, thereby ending Copan's long-standing control over Quiriguá. The date of this turning point in Quiriguá history is immortalized on a huge boulder known as Zoomorph G. Half a dozen of these curious rounded sculptures, resembling mythical and real animals, are found in Quiriguá. Zoomorph D, planted firmly in the center of the Great Plaza, depicts a jaguar-like creature with what could be the king of Copan's or Cauac Sky's head clenched in its jaws. Zoomorph P at the plaza's northern end shows the omnipresent ruler sitting cross-legged in the gaping mouth of what appears to be another ferocious monster. The entire surfaces of these massive stones are emblazoned with glyphs, plus some of the most intricate and baffling carvings in Mundo Maya. Not surprisingly Quiriguá was the second Maya city to be declare UNESCO´s World Heritage Monument in 1981, after Tikal (1979).

To the north of the Great Plaza sprawls the Acropolis, a former residential and administrative complex. Steep flights of stairs surmount the quadrangle's walls, which enclose a spacious inner compound. On the Acropolis' south end, the palaces of Cauac Sky and Jade Sky, Quiriguá last known ruler, can be found. These low-slung buildings now lie in ruins, but at one time, they boasted multiple rooms, built-in stone benches, curtains, and even “pib' nah” (sweat baths), for ceremonial and medical uses. Quiriguá victory over Copan prompted a building boom, which saw the city transformed from a backwater Jade trading post into a major ceremonial center. From A.D. 738 on, the entire west side of the Acropolis was redone. A new ball court was also constructed to the left, along with an elaborately decorated wall sporting busts of Kinich Ahau, the Maya sun god.

The Acropolis offers panoramic views of the encircling forest canopy, which shelters Quiriguá from the twentieth century, and the Great Plaza with the mysterious sculptures that have mesmerized countless travelers. British author Sir Aldous Huxley, who passed this way in the 1930's, aptly noted that Quiriguá stelas and monuments commemorate " Human triumph over time and matter and the triumph of time and matter over man." Certainly, the ancient Maya were obsessed with measuring great spans of time. Priests used their complex calendar like a time machine, roaming at will through the distant past and future. Stela C depicts the date 13.0.0.0.0 4 Ahaw 8 Kumk'u (August 13, 3114 BC), the beginning of the 5th. Maya era that will end on Dec. 21 2012 AD. Archaeologists have decoded inscriptions on stele F and D at Quiriguá; they refer to obscure events that took place some 90 and 400 million years ago.

Ironically, Quiriguá own heyday lasted for little more than a hundred years and the city fell only a few decades after Cauac Sky's death in A.D. 785. Experts think that wars, overpopulation and the resulting depletion of natural resources eventually weakened most great Mesoamerican urban centers. However, the exact reasons for Quiriguá demise are unclear. By the middle of the ninth century, Quiriguá royalty and much of its population had migrated elsewhere, the last date recorded there is 810 AD.

Piedras Negras

One of the most important sites of the Classic Maya period, Piedras Negras lies along the east bank of the Usumacinta River, just inside the Guatemala border with Mexico. The archaeological site of Piedras Negras achieved fame in the early 1960s when Russian-born scholar Tatiana Proskouriakoff deciphered the previously inscrutable Maya hieroglyphic script. Proskouriakoff was able to discern the historical content of the inscriptions, which included records and timelines of kings and members of the nobility.

Piedras Negras is remarkable for its magnificent temple-pyramids, baths and ball courts, but most especially for its many fine limestone sculptures, reliefs and stelae. Although the ruins are remote and difficult to reach, this has not deterred looters from ransacking the site. Numerous statues and stelae have been destroyed or stolen.

In the 1930s the site was excavated, but never restored, and now the monuments are seriously jeopardized by erosion. An added threat is the ever-encroaching surrounding rain forest. Almost all of the monuments are overgrown with vegetation and have never been cleared. Walls are threatening to collapse and the inscriptions have faded badly.

Unlike the Aztec, the ancient Maya were not builders of empires. Echoing more the civilization of the ancient Greeks, the Maya formed independent polities, each ruled by its own dynastic nobility. Most likely, allegiances were formed between each polity, but a unified empire under one ruler was never established. The Maya had a distinct class system, with the nobility claiming divine lineage.

The peak of Maya civilization occurred during the Classic Maya period (AD 400-800), where a number of cities flourished in the Petén region, including Piedras Negras. In antiquity Piedras Negras was known as Yokib, which means "entrance", possibly because of a 100-metre-wide cenote (a natural underground reservoir used as a sacrificial well) located near the site.

Architecture
The extensive ruins of Piedras Negras have been classified into three architectural units: the west group (site of the main Acropolis), the east group and the south group. The structures of these groups are all situated around open plazas and consist of typical Maya monuments: temple-pyramids, ball courts and sweat baths.

A unique feature of the monuments at Piedras Negras is the frequent occurrence of the so-called "artists' signatures". Individual artists have been identified by the use of recurring glyphs on stelae and other reliefs.

Uaxactún

Uaxactún was inhabited from the Middle Pre-Classic on through the late Classic period, but flourished mainly in the Classic Period, from 500 AD to 900 AD. The earliest dated inscription of 328 AD, was found on Stela 9, and the most recent, 889 AD, was found on Stela 12. Along with other evidence, these dates prove that Uaxactún existed longer than any other Mayan city in Petén. Possibly from as early as 900 BC. Although this will have to be revised due to the impressive sites of Nakbé and El Mirador, considered now the oldest in the Mayan World. Along with other Pre Classic Maya cities, Uaxactún declined during the 9th century and was abandoned by the first part of the 10th century. Throughout the following centuries, the city was consumed by the dense jungle of northeast Guatemala and was not rediscovered until the early 20th century. During the 1930's, extensive research was done mainly, but not exclusively, by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, that laid the base for modern investigations of Maya civilization. It was named Uaxactún, which means “eight stones,” by Sylvanus Morley. He came up with the name from an inscription he found in one of the stelas that he deciphered. (A gift from the King of Tikal after Uaxactún defeated him).

Main Palace: A brief summary of the growth at the site of Uaxactún can be recovered from excavations carried out over different areas of the site. These excavations reveal that the growth of Uaxactún can be divided up into a set of relatively distinct phases. These divisions are represented by changes in Uaxactún architecture although the dates sometimes overlap because the growth of Uaxactún was continuous.

The earliest phase which has been called the Early Development Period began sometime in the first or second millennium BC. And lasted until about 100 AD. During this time the residents of Uaxactún lived in wood and thatched huts without foundations.

The second period called the Late Development Period ended just before the beginning of the fourth century AD. During this time stone and mortar masonry was used and structures were built around level squares and plazas. A very famous war, documented in the Maya Culture, with Tikal, is recorded in Stela 5 from Uaxactún: On 8.17.1.4.12 11 Eb' 15 Mac, or January 16, A.D. 378 and Tikal's Kalomté, Siyaj K’ahk’ or "Fire is Born", formerly known as Smoking Frog, ruled Tikal from Uaxactún after its conquest.

The last period at Uaxactún known as the Classic Period lasted from 280 AD to 890 AD and is divided into two phases, the Early and Late Classic. The Early Classic Period lasted about 320 years. During this time masonry temples were constructed around paved plazas. The Late Classic Period began around 590 AD and lasted until about 890 AD. The year 889 AD marks the end of important building activity at Uaxactún. During this period many new structures were built along with more plazas and terraces.

Temple E VII-B (Temple of the Masks): Many structures were built throughout Uaxactún. A number of ceremonial buildings were erected before the end of the Late Pre Classic Period and the beginning of the Classic.

Complex E: One of the most notable series of buildings at the site is that formed by Structures E-1, E-2, and E-3, which are aligned north-south and form an astronomical observatory, the first found in the Maya world. From a observation point on a nearby pyramid Structure E-VII-B, the early Maya could watch the sun rise behind these buildings and mark the summer and winter solstices (the longest and shortest days of the year) as well as the vernal and autumnal equinoxes (when day and night are of equal length).

Structure E-VII-B. Is a truncated pyramid with stairways on four sides that are flanked by huge masks that are covered with stucco, Representing the Jaguar, Turtles, Eagles, Parrots and other animals sacred to them, also there is an impressive Stela at the east stairway carved in its 4 sides and with remaining of the original red paint. That is the mark for the observation point. All the Important Maya sites have an "E" Group, named afeter this complex, the earliest found by the archaeologist here in Uaxactún.

Other Mayan structures that were used for astronomical purposes were discovered as a result of this revelation. The large stucco sculptures and masks that decorate the stairways and platforms depict individual rulers as well as the Witz monster, who was the guardian of the sacred mountain by the same name.

A mainstay of the Mayan and Uaxactún diet was maize. This was of prime importance to them and was often featured in their iconography. The swidden (slash and burn) method of cultivating maize corresponded to low population densities in Uaxactún. A delicate balance was needed to equally distribute crop production to the people. Terrace intensive farming was also practiced. Uaxactún is with Tikal and El Zotz, a site with wooden carved lintels.

Yaxha

Yaxha (or Yaxhá in Spanish orthography) is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the northeast of the Petén Basin region, and a former ceremonial center and city of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. Located in the modern-day department of Petén, northern Guatemala, it is approximately 30 km (18.6mi) southeast from Tikal, between the Yahxá and Sacnab lakes. It shares a unique relationship with two other cities (Nakum and Naranjo); together they form a triangle in the midst of which there are other minor sites.

The site has more than 500 structures, including 40 stelae, 13 Altars, 9 Temple Pyramids, 2 Mesoamerican ballcourts, and a network of sacbeob (causeways) that connect the central, northern (Maler), and eastern 'acropoleis', and the Lake causeway that was the main entrance in the past. The top of Temple 216 (restored) provides a view of the two lakes on one side and the jungle and the stepped-pyramids on the other.

On Plaza C is the only twin-pyramid complex outside of Tikal, that commemorates a Katun, a 20 years period, there are 7 in Tikal, also known as the stela plaza. The fact that the site hold the twin-pyramid complex can be a visible insight on the political alliances that eventually influeced the architectural style of the city at its peak.

The Temple K is being restored here, at the entrance of the site. The city has 3 main groups, the East Acrópolis built on an elevated platform, is the tallest point of the site and in front of it are several Stelas broken long ago. The main ball court is restored, and located near the Central Acrópolis. The Deutsche Bank is financing its undergoing restoration.

Topoxte outpost of Yaxhá during the Late Classic, is nearby and was the largest Postclassic Maya site in Petén Basin. This site located at the "Yaxhá, Nakum, Naranjo National Park" is today one of the most visited sites in the northwest of the Peten.

Yaxha is notable for the unique survival of its toponym from the Classic period, when it was a thriving city. In 1985, David Stuart first proposed that the Emblem Glyph of the site should be read Yax-ha and that the name of the city (and the lake) is of ancient origin.

Ceibal

Ceibal, (also named Seibal in Spanish) was first inhabited in the Middle Preclassic Period around 800 B.C., then the city grew in size and population until about the time of Christ then it began a long decline. It was then abandoned between roughly A.D. 500 and 590, and then it was reoccupied. In 735 AD, Ruler 3 from the Maya city of Dos Pilas, initiated its warfare in the Petexbatún area. captured the ruler of Ceibal, Yich'ak Balam, and his city, leading to about 60 years of foreign rule. Around 830 AD, a non-Classic Maya group settled in Ceibal, which witnessed its greatest growth over the next 100 years as its population reached about 10,000. The city was then permanently abandoned in 930 AD and not rediscovered until about 1890 AD.

Today, it is most noted for its beautiful carved stelas sculpted from high-quality limestone It is located at la Pasión river left bank, near Sayaxché, 1 hour drive from Flores on paved road, it is renown for its steles, one of the finest in Petén, Ceibal was a rival city of Machaquilá to the east, and Dos Pilas and Aguateca to the west, also had rivalry with Cancuén to the south, in fact Ceibal dominated much of the south Petén region during its splendor in the late Classic, around 700 AD The city has 4 plazas, along with 31 sculptured monuments, 2 ball courts, 56 steles and 22 altars.

Among its buildings, the circular observatory probably the first in the Classic Maya culture, its very distinctive, some of its latest stelas has Toltec influences, like bone ornaments in the nose of the main figures, and square hieroglyphs, in the main Temple there is a Jaguar sculpture with monkeys in it base.

It is of interest that the earliest signs of civilization in the southern Petén were ceramics dated just after 1000 BC found at Ceibal along with Jade objects showing an Olmec influence. Ceibal was occupied throughout the entire classic period and was invaded around 830 AD by the Putún or Chontal Maya-Toltec from the Gulf coast known by the Maya as the Itza', meaning "people who speak our tongue poorly". Ceibal's last carved stela is dated 889 AD.

One interesting theory is that: When the Popol Vuh tells about the masters that later founded the K’iche’ supremacy, traveled to Tulán (the big city) to obtain the power badges, Maybe it narrates the fact that the Ucanal soldiers went to the actual Ceibal and proclaimed its domination, and then emigrated south, to the center of the actual Quiché. That is why they came from the east, because Ucanal is located to the east of Ceibal. This migration, as others, from the Pacific Lowlands, gave birth to new political expressions, which were successful in the Post-Classic period.

Writing & Literacy of Maya

Writing System

The Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficial resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) was a combination of phonetic symbols and logograms. It is most often classified as a logographic or (more properly) a logosyllabic writing system, in which syllabic signs play a significant role. It is the only writing system of the Pre-Columbian New World which is known to completely represent the spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than a thousand different glyphs, although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning, and many appear only rarely or are confined to particular localities. At any one time, no more than around 500 glyphs were in use, some 200 of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.

The earliest inscriptions in an identifiably-Maya script date back to 200–300 BC. However, this is preceded by several other writing systems which had developed in Mesoamerica, most notably that of the Zapotecs, and (following the 2006 publication of research on the recently-discovered Cascajal Block), the Olmecs. There is a pre-Maya writing known as "Epi-Olmec script" (post Olmec) which some researchers believe may represent a transitional script between Olmec and Maya writing, but the relationships between these remain unclear and the matter is unsettled. On January 5, 2006, National Geographic published the findings of Maya writings that could be as old as 400 BCE, suggesting that the Maya writing system is nearly as old as the oldest Mesoamerican writing known at that time, Zapotec. In the succeeding centuries the Maya developed their script into a form which was far more complete and complex than any other that has yet been found in the Americas.

Since its inception, the Maya script was in use up to the arrival of the Europeans, peaking during the Maya Classical Period (c. 200 to 900). Although many Maya centers went into decline (or were completely abandoned) during or after this period, the skill and knowledge of Maya writing persisted amongst segments of the population, and the early Spanish conquistadors knew of individuals who could still read and write the script. Unfortunately, the Spanish displayed little interest in it, and as a result of the dire impacts the conquest had on Maya societies, the knowledge was subsequently lost, probably within only a few generations.

At a rough estimate, in excess of 10,000 individual texts have so far been recovered, mostly inscribed on stone monuments, lintels, stelae and ceramic pottery. The Maya also produced texts painted on a form of paper manufactured from processed tree-bark, in particular from several species of strangler fig trees such as Ficus cotinifolia and Ficus padifolia. This paper, common throughout Mesoamerica and generally now known by its Nahuatl-language name amatl, was typically bound as a single continuous sheet that was folded into pages of equal width, concertina-style, to produce a codex (book) that could be written on both sides. Shortly after the conquest, all of the codices which could be found were ordered to be burnt and destroyed by zealous Spanish priests, notably Bishop Diego de Landa. Only three reasonably intact examples of Maya codices are known to have survived through to the present day. These are now known as the Madrid, Dresden, and Paris codices. A few pages survive from a fourth, the Grolier codex, whose authenticity is sometimes disputed, but mostly is held to be genuine. Further archaeology conducted at Mayan sites often reveals other fragments, rectangular lumps of plaster and paint chips which formerly were codices; these tantalizing remains are, however, too severely damaged for any inscriptions to have survived, most of the organic material having decayed.

The decipherment and recovery of the now-lost knowledge of Maya writing has been a long and laborious process. Some elements were first deciphered in the late 19th and early 20th century, mostly the parts having to do with numbers, the Maya calendar, and astronomy. Major breakthroughs came starting in the 1950s to 1970s, and accelerated rapidly thereafter. By the end of the 20th century, scholars were able to read the majority of Maya texts to a large extent, and recent field work continues to further illuminate the content.

In reference to the few extant Maya writings, Michael D. Coe, a prominent linguist and epigrapher at Yale University stated:

"Our knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and 'Pilgrim's Progress')." (Michael D. Coe, The Maya, London: Thames and Hudson, 4th ed., 1987, p. 161.)

Most surviving pre-Columbian Maya writing is from stelae and other stone inscriptions from Maya sites, many of which were already abandoned before the Spanish arrived. The inscriptions on the stelae mainly record the dynasties and wars of the sites' rulers. Also of note are the inscriptions that reveal information about the lives of ancient Maya women. Much of the remainder of Maya hieroglyphics has been found on funeral pottery, most of which describes the afterlife.

Writing Tools

Although the archaeological record does not provide examples, Maya art shows that writing was done with brushes made with animal hair and quills. Codex-style writing was usually done in black ink with red highlights, giving rise to the Aztec name for the Maya territory as the "land of red and black".

Scribes & Literacy

Scribes held a prominent position in Maya courts. Maya art often depicts rulers with trappings indicating they were scribes or at least able to write, such as having pen bundles in their headdresses. Additionally, many rulers have been found in conjunction with writing tools such as shell or clay inkpots.

Although the number of logograms and syllabic symbols required to fully write the language numbered in the hundreds, literacy was not necessarily widespread beyond the elite classes. Graffiti uncovered in various contexts, including on fired bricks, shows nonsensical attempts to imitate the writing system.

Maya Religion

Like the Aztec and Inca who came to power later, the Maya believed in a cyclical nature of time. The rituals and ceremonies were very closely associated with celestial/terrestrial cycles which they observed and inscribed as separate calendars. The Maya priest had the job of interpreting these cycles and giving a prophetic outlook on the future or past based on the number relations of all their calendars. They also had to determine if the "heavens" or celestial matters were appropriate for performing certain religious ceremonies.

The Maya practiced human sacrifice. In some Maya rituals people were killed by having their arms and legs held while a priest cut the person's chest open and tore out his heart as an offering. This is depicted on ancient objects such as pictorial texts, known as codices (singular: codex). It is believed that children were often offered as sacrificial victims because they were believed to be pure.

Much of the Maya religious tradition is still not understood by scholars, but it is known that the Maya, like most pre-modern societies, believed that the cosmos has three major planes, the underworld, the sky, and the earth.

The Maya underworld is reached through caves and ball courts. It was thought to be dominated by the aged Maya gods of death and putrefaction. The Sun and Itzamna, both aged gods, dominated the Maya idea of the sky. The night sky was considered a window showing all supernatural doings. The Maya configured constellations of gods and places, saw the unfolding of narratives in their seasonal movements, and believed that the intersection of all possible worlds was in the night sky.

Maya gods were not separate entities like Greek gods. The gods had affinities and aspects that caused them to merge with one another in ways that seem unbounded. There is a massive array of supernatural characters in the Maya religious tradition, only some of which recur with regularity. Good and evil traits are not permanent characteristics of Maya gods, nor is only "good" admirable. What is inappropriate during one season might come to pass in another since much of the Mayan religious tradition is based on cycles and not permanence.

The life-cycle of maize lies at the heart of Maya belief. This philosophy is demonstrated on the Maya belief in the Maize God as a central religious figure. The Maya bodily ideal is also based on the form of the young Maize God, which is demonstrated in their artwork. The Maize God was also a model of courtly life for the Classical Maya.

It is sometimes believed that the multiple "gods" represented nothing more than a mathematical explanation of what they observed. Each god was literally just a number or an explanation of the effects observed by a combination of numbers from multiple calendars. Among the many types of Maya calendars which were maintained, the most important included a 260-day cycle, a 365-day cycle which approximated the solar year, a cycle which recorded lunation periods of the Moon, and a cycle which tracked the synodic period of Venus.

Philosophically, the Maya believed that knowing the past meant knowing the cyclical influences that create the present, and by knowing the influences of the present one can see the cyclical influences of the future.

Even in the 19th century, there was Maya influence in the local branch of Christianity followed in Chan Santa Cruz. Among the K'iche's in the western highlands of Guatemala these same nine months are replicated, until this very day, in the training of the ajk'ij, the keeper of the 260-day-calendar called ch'olk'ij.

Astronomy of Ancient Maya

Of all the world's ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex, intricate and accurate. Calculations of the congruence of the 260-day and the 365-day Maya cycles is almost exactly equal to the actual solar year in the tropics, with only a 19-minute margin of error.

Maya astronomer-priests looked to the heavens for guidance. They used observatories, shadow-casting devices, and observations of the horizon to trace the complex motions of the sun, the stars and planets in order to observe, calculate and record this information in their chronicles, or "codices". From these observations, the Maya developed calendars to keep track of celestial movements and the passage of time. The Maya also kept detailed records of the moon, although these do not seem to constitute a formal lunar calendar.

In Maya cities, ceremonial buildings were precisely aligned with compass directions. At the spring and fall equinoxes, for example, the Sun might be made to cast its rays through small openings in a Maya observatory, lighting up the observatory's interior walls.

Other alignments might relate to the exteriors of temples and palaces. The most famous example of this kind of alignment can be observed at Chichén Itzá, the principal Maya city of the Yucatán Peninsula. People still gather there each year, as they have for centuries, to observe the sun illuminate the stairs of a pyramid dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent god. At the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, the Sun gradually illuminates the pyramid stairs and the serpent head at its base, creating the image of a snake slithering down the sacred mountain to Earth.

Why did the Maya go to such lengths to align their ceremonial plazas and temples with the Sun and stars? In part, it was to venerate the gods. Pacal's tomb in the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque, for example, is aligned with the Sun. At winter solstice, the Sun sets behind the high ridge beyond the temple, in line with the centre of the temple roof. As the Sun crosses the sky, it enters a doorway in the temple, hits the back wall and, as it heads for the horizon beyond the temple, appears to descend the temple stairway into Pacal's tomb. Pacal's death and entry into the Underworld are thus equated with the Sun's death and entry into the Underworld.

The Maya built observatories at many of their cities, and aligned important structures with the movements of celestial bodies. Some of these are temple groupings, such as a group of three at Uaxactún, which marks the Sun's rising position at summer solstice, the two equinoxes and winter solstice. Architecture such as the Caracol at Chichén Itzá was also aligned with the appearance of celestial bodies such as the Pleiades and Venus. Another temple at Uxmal contains hundreds of Venus symbols.

Astronomical metaphors and celestial events defined the ritual landscape for Maya rulers. Transfers of royal power, for example, seem to have been timed by the summer solstice at certain centres. At Palenque, an inscription notes that Pacal's son Chan-Bahlum dedicated the Cross Temple grouping on July 23, 690 - timed to coincide with the conjunction of Jupiter, Saturn, Mars and the Moon. To the Maya, this event may have represented the primordial birth of the three ancestor gods of the Palenque dynasty with the First Mother (the Moon), and would have been an appropriate moment to consecrate an accession monument.

Maya murals and carvings show rulers wearing symbols of the heavens, including a belt or sky-band made of a chain of symbols relating to the Moon, the Sun, Venus, day, night and the sky. Rulers are also depicted carrying bars decorated as sky-bands to indicate that they had the mandate of heaven. Sometimes they are seated, surrounded by a sky-band which gives the ruler a halo of celestial authority. Rulers also liked to associate themselves with auspicious gods of the sky such as the Sun God, and Maya rulers and priests in real life often "clothed themselves with the heavens" by dressing in the pelt of the jaguar, whose spots were taken to represent the stars.

The Maya believed that the gods guided the Sun and Moon across the sky. Even in the darkness of night, the Maya believed that the Sun and Moon continued to journey through the Underworld, threatened all the way by evil gods who wanted to stop their progress. For this reason, the Maya believed that the heavenly bodies needed human help, which was provided through sacred rituals such as self-mutilation, torture, and human sacrifice. To the Maya, offering this help was simply the price to be paid for the continued survival of the universe. Death from such rituals was a privilege, and conferred immortality on those who died, or who offered themselves as victims.

The repeating cycles of creation and destruction as described in Maya mythology were a reminder of the consequences if humans neglected their obligations to the gods. Humans had an inherent responsibility to the gods who made humanity's continued existence possible. According to the Maya sacred calendar, each 52-year period signalled the renewed possibility of the destruction of the world. This was seen as a frightening time when the gods and other forces of creation and chaos would do battle in the world of mortals, determining the fate of all earthly creatures.

The planet Venus was particularly significant to the Maya; the important god Quetzalcoatl, for example, is identified with Venus. The Dresden Codex, one of four surviving Maya chronicles, contains an extensive tabulation of the appearances of Venus, and was used to predict the future. The Maya also went to war by the sky, again triggered by the planet Venus. Venus war regalia is seen on stelae and other carvings, and raids and captures were timed by appearances of Venus, particularly as an evening "star". Warfare related to the movements of Venus was, in fact, well established throughout Mesoamerica.

Maya calendars, mythology and astrology were integrated into a single system of belief. The Maya observed the sky and calendars to predict solar and lunar eclipses, the cycles of the planet Venus, and the movements of the constellations. These occurrences were far more than mere mechanical movements of the heavens, and were believed to be the activities of gods replaying mythical events from the time of Creation.

Calendar priests still exist in Maya regions today, and keep the 260-day Sacred Round count for divination and other shamanistic activity. Many of the components of this belief system originated in the sky, but were manipulated on Earth by astronomer-priests who applied the sacred structure of the cosmos to affairs on Earth.

Resources about Maya Civilization

National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City
The National Museum of Anthropology is a wonderful museum, located in historic Chapultepec Park in Mexico City.

Discover the Maya World
Maya (mä¹ye), related tribes of Central America occupying the Yucatán and E Chiapas in Mexico, much of Guatemala and Belize, and W Honduras, and speaking Mayan languages. They may derive from the Olmec, or they may have originated c.1000 B.C. among nomadic tribes in N central Petén, Guatemala, where there are evidences of a once-flourishing agricultural people.

Mesoweb: Exploration of Mesoamerican cultures
Devoted to the ancient cultures of Mexico and adjacent Central America, including the Olmec, Zapotec, Mixtec, Teotihuacan, Toltec, Aztec and Maya (reserving the word Mayan for the language and the word Maya for the people and their culture).

Ancient Civilizations
Collected materials and some original essays on Ancient civilizations.

MayaWeb (in Dutch and English)
Culture and History of the Ancient and Modern Maya.

The Maya Astronomy Page
The Maya were quite accomplished astronomers. Their primary interest, in contrast to "western" astronomers, were Zenial Passages when the Sun crossed over the Maya latitudes. On an annual basis the sun travels to its summer solstice point, or the latitude of 23-1/3 degrees north.

Maya Codices
There are four Maya codices, usually known by the name of the city in which they are now located. They are made from tree bark that has been flattened, covered with a lime paste & folded accordion-style.

The Mayan Ruins of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and Honduras by Mark Leger
The Maya, sons of the days, are made up of time," Eduardo Galleano recently wrote. He was referring to two things: their brilliant traditional calendars, products of astronomical knowledge until recently unrivaled by any other culture.

Ancient Mesoamerican Civilizations by Kevin L. Callahan
Writing, government, religion, calendar systems, and archaeology for the Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Aztec are covered in this website by Kevin Callahan, University of Minnesota, Department of Anthropology.

Maya Adventure!
World-Wide Web site that highlights science activities and information related to ancient and modern Maya culture.

Maya-archaeology.org
Covers Mayan, Olmec, Teotihuacan art, architecture, deities, hieroglyphic writing and the latest digital photography, 35mm film and flatbed scanner technology for recording the artifacts and pyramid-temple and palace architectural remains of these fascinating ancient civilizations.

Arte Maya Tz'utuhil, Oil Paintings by Mayan Indians
Guatemalan Mayan Indian artists depict their traditions in hundreds of colorful oil paintings exhibited in this virtual museum and art gallery.

Mayan Archaeology & Civilization
This exhibit focuses on the archaeology in Mesoamerica and South America, with additional pages on specific sites, cultures, and technology used by the ancient people of Latin America.

The Maya Civilization Then & Now
Feature Section in Mexico Connect - Mexico's monthly ezine / magazine devoted to informing about and promoting Mexico, her people, culture, history, arts, business and spectacular areas and beaches as a place to visit, live and travel.

Articles on Archaeology and the Maya on Ambergris Caye, Belize
A column about about Archaeology and Maya history in Belize by Herman Smith.

The Maya Ruins Page
A photographic tour of Maya archaeological sites in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Belize. Includes interactive maps, quotations from explorers and scholars, and a bibliography.

Mayan Civilization
The ancient Maya civilization occupied the eastern third of Mesoamerica, primarily the Yucatan Peninsula. The topography of the area greatly varied from volcanic mountains, which comprised the highlands in the South, to a porous limestone shelf, known as the Lowlands, in the central and northern regions.

Archaeology of the ancient Mayan civilization of Mesoamerica
Where you can find lots of historical information about the Maya, past and present, with a bookstore of resources and links to other Maya-related sites.

Mayan Ruins by Ken Goehring
The ancient stone buildings in southern Mexico, Belize, Honduras and Guatemala always fascinate everyone who sees them. Often, in television specials for example, the Maya are discussed as if they no longer exist. "What happened to this culture?"