• Ancient Egypt
  • Cleopatra VII of Egypt
  • Egypt's Dynasties
  • Egyptian Monuments
  • Egyptian Pharaohs
  • Egyptian Pyramids
  • Valley of the Kings
• Ancient Manuscript
• Ancient Temple
• Angkor Wat
• Ark of the Covenant
• Aztec Civilization
• Bible Mystery
• Chichenitza
• Dead Sea Scrolls
• Easter Island
• Forbidden City
• Inca Empire
• Knights Templar
• Machu Picchu
• Maya Civilization
• Mummy
• Noah's Ark
• Petra
• Stonehenge

• Afterlife
• Ball Lightning
• Bermuda Triangle
• Black Hole
• Crop Circle
• Human Combustion
• Nazca Lines
• Prophecy
• Science Mysteries
  • Antarctic
  • Anti Gravity
  • Astronomy
  • Aura
  • Aurora
  • Cloning / Clone
  • Earthquake
  • Geyser
  • Hurricane
  • Lechuguilla Cave
  • Mount Everest
  • Rainforest
  • Time Travel
  • Volcano
• Shroud of Turin

• Cryptozoology
  • Chupacabra
  • Giant Octopus / Squid
  • Bigfoot & Yeti
  • Loch Ness Monster
• Ghost Ship
• Ghost Town
• Roswell Incident
• UFO

• Atlantis
• Flying Dutchman
• Holy Grail
• King Arthur & the Round Table
• Great Wall of China
• Mary Celeste

• Acupressure
• Acupuncture
• Amen Ra
• Andes
• Angel
• Apparition
• Area-51
• Armageddon
• Castle
• Cave
• Death Valley
• Dinosaur
• John F. Kennedy
• Majestic 12
• Philadelphia Experiment
• Petroglyph
• Titanic

Ancient Egypt Pyramids > Abusir

Abusir

Abusir has been called the site of the forgotten kings of the 5th Dynasty. Despite the size of their monuments, these kings do not have the fame of their predecessors from the 4th Dynasty. The site was closed for many years to visitors, but is now open to the public. The Pyramids of Abusir originally consisted of fourteen pyramids from the 5th Dynasty. Only four are still standing. Of the four, the first encountered as you come from the main Saqqara complex, is the Pyramid of Neferefre. This pyramid was never finished and is in very poor condition. However, there were some remarkable finds in the pyramid, including a royal group of statues of the Old Kingdom, and several portraits of another king or more probably Neferefre himself, Raneferef, including one of him sitting on his throne holding a mace. Its original name was "Divine are the Ba-souls of Neferefre. It base length is 65 meters (217 feet).

In addition to pyramids, there are also various tombs in the necropolis, as well as the Sun Temples of the 5th Dynasty Kings located just to the north at Abu Ghauob.

Pyramid of Khentkaues II at Abusir

On the south side of the pyramid of Neferirkare at Abusir is a small structure that may have first been investigated by Ludwig Borchardt. Even though its location and east-west orientation would suggest that this was a small pyramid, Borchardt dismissed it as a double mastaba of little significance and so did not explore it fully. Only after a much later investigation in the 1970s by a Czech team of archaeologists was its true nature revealed and its owner clearly established as none other then the consort of Neferirkare, Khentkaues II (Khentkaus II).

Inscriptions within the pyramid help us decode the history of this period. They tell us that there were probably two stages of this pyramids construction. The pyramid was probably begun during the reign of Neferirkare, but around the tenth year of his rule, construction was halted. We presume this was due to the king's death. On this part of the construction, Khentkaues II was referred to as "King's Wife". After some time, construction was continued, but this time she is referred to as "King's Mother", indicating that her son, probably Nyuserre, who was now pharaoh finished her pyramid. It may have even been that Khentkaues herself ordered resumption of the work. Nyuserre was perhaps underage when he ascended the throne, and if so, Khentkaues probably acted as his regent, effectively, as ruler of Egypt.

The pyramid itself, mostly in ruins as others at Abusir and measuring four meters high, was of a simple design built using the discarded limestone from the Neferirkare pyramid. The core is of three layers, bound with mortar made of clay. The casing was high quality white limestone, and it once had a dark gray granite pyramidion, of which fragments have been found.

The entrance to the pyramid is near ground level in the middle of the north wall. The initial corridor, made from small blocks of fine white limestone, first descends, and then becomes level leading slightly to the east and was terminated by a simple stone barrier just prior to the burial chamber. The burial chamber is also line with white limestone, but with larger blocks serving as it flat ceiling.

There were small remains of the queens funerary equipment found within the pyramid, including fragments from her pink granite sarcophagus, bits of her mummy wrappings and some shards from stone vessels. Markings on these clearly demonstrated that they belonged to Khentkaues II.

In front of the east wall of the pyramid is her mortuary temple which, like Neferirkare's, was also finished in several stages. The earliest part of the temple, which was very modest in size, is made from limestone and was entered through a pillared portico from the south-east. Regrettably, this section of the temple was so completely destroyed by stone thieves that it is very difficult to reconstruct its original design in all details. The entrance to the temple was originally from the east, near the southeastern corner and decorated with twin monolithic limestone pillars colored red and bearing on the exterior side vertical hieroglyphic inscriptions in sunk relief with the queen's titulary, name and depiction.

There was an open courtyard decorated with similar pillars that took up the eastern half of the temple complex. This pillared courtyard led to the western part of the temple complex which was the center of the queens mortuary cult. Here, there was a room with niches for the wooden cult statues of the queen, an offering hall with a false pink granite door, an alter and storage annexes. There was also a stairway that led to a roof terrace, were astronomical rituals were most likely carried out.

The rooms in the western part of the temple were decorated with scenes and inscriptions in colored low relief. The Temple's decorative theme covered an astoundingly wide array of subject, including sacrifice, agricultural work, processions of personified funerary states bearing offerings to the queen, and others. Some of the scenes are exceptional, such as one, unfortunately preserved only in very small fragments, probably depicting the ruler, Nyuserre, and members of his family standing in front of the royal mother. On the fragment with the scene, just as on some other limestone fragments of reliefs and clay sealings, the queen's name is preceded by a title naming her as "Mother of the Two Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt" or sometimes "King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Mother of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt".

The remains of a scene on one pillar still standing in the temple court brought another unexpected surprise. The vertical hieroglyphic inscription with the remains of titles and the name, Khentkaues, terminate in a picture of the queen sitting on a throne and holding a wadj-scepter in her hand. The queen's brow is adorned with a cobra rearing to attack, known as a uraeus. At this time in Egyptian history, the right to wear the uraeus on the forehead was the exclusive privilege of the ruling king or of the gods. However, it is possible that the uraeus here could have served some sort of symbolic purpose.

The original plan of the pyramid complex called for it to be enclosed within a high wall built of limestone blocks. This was was begun, but never finished. In fact, the parts of the wall that had been erected were partially dismantled when, later, the complex was reconstructed and extended. Hence, materials obtained from the original was were used in the building of a diminutive cult pyramid near the southeast corner of the older stone part of the temple. Reconstruction also included the basic extension of the temple towards the east. A new entrance, monumental in size and once again adorned with twin limestone pillars, was erected precisely on the east-west axis of the pyramid complex, while a small stone basin next to the entrance reminded visitors of their duty to purify themselves before entering the temple.

Most of this construction was of mudbrick which was plastered, whitewashed and sometimes adorned with painting. For at least a period of time, this softened the contrast between the effect of the two different building phases.

A spacious entrance hall was constructed which supplied an important crossroads because it allowed access to a group of five magazines in the southeast corner of the extended part of the temple and to a group of domestic rooms in the northeastern corner, while also communicating with the intimate part of the temple containing the cult rooms in the west.

This new construction phase really implied a fundamental change in the conception behind the queen's pyramid complex. Originally an appendage of the great pyramid complex of Neferirkare, it became the architecturally and functionally "independent" tomb of a person whose rank was similar to that of a ruler.

Pyramid of Neferefre (Raneferer) at Abusir

An examination of the Pyramid of Neferefre, long known as the Unfinished Pyramid in the pyramid field at Abusir, gives us considerable insight on how Egyptologists gather evidence in order to sort out Egyptian history.

Plan of the funerary complex of Neferefre

This pyramid was known named The Pyramid which is divine of the Ba spirits Divine is Neferefre's power.

This pyramid was examined by a number of early explorers, including Perring, Lepsius, de Morgan, Borchardt and others. While some of these thought it might be Neferefre's pyramid, others attributed it to Shepseskare. Others hesitated to make any identification of its owner. None of them thought that the intended owner's mummy occupied the unfinished pyramid. Actually, the pyramid looked much like a mastaba tomb, but it was square and not rectangular nor north-south oriented like mastabas. Indeed, because of its truncated shape, what had been planned as a pyramid became a bench-like structure which later priests called 'the primeval hill', a place of eternal birth, of life and resurrection.

Ludwig Borchardt, an experienced archaeologist and expert on pyramids, actually came within inches of discovering the true nature of the Unfinished Pyramid at the beginning of the 20th century. Wishing not to completely ignore the ruins on the western margin of the Abusir cemetery, he carried out trial diggings. He decided to dig a trench several meters down in a deep open ditch that ran from the north into the center of the monument. Here, in the case of a finished tomb, it would be natural to assume the existence of a passage leading to a burial chamber. However, he did not reach the passage or its remains, and this negative result confirmed to him the belief that this was rough, unfinished structure consisting of no more than the lowest step of a pyramid core, with work never having started on substructure.

Unfortunately for Borchardt, had he continued his probe, digging perhaps one meter lower than the point where he gave up, he would have made two important finds under the rubble. Had he reached the bottom of the ditch, he would have discovered, still partly in situ, the huge blocks of red granite out of which was constructed the portcullis blocks in the passage giving access to the burial chamber, which would have evidenced the existence of a completed substructure. He would have also found a cursive inscription recorded in black on a block from the core of the structure containing the name of Neferefre. However, his negative findings consigned the Unfinished Pyramid to 70 years of archaeological oblivion. Finally, in the 1970s, the University of Prague did a systematic investigation, and by piecing together various clues, arrived at the conclusion that it was indeed Neferefre's pyramid, and that his mummy had in fact been buried in the pyramid.

First, they discovered that Neferefre's mortuary temple is specifically mentioned in a papyrus fragment found in the mortuary temple of Neferirkare. This document suggests at least that the mortuary temple of Neferefre was located in the Abusir area, and likely very near that of Neferirkare's complex.

The second clue was a limestone block found in the village of Abusir, which probably came from Neferirkare's mortuary temple. It revealed a partial scene depicting Neferirkare's family, which included, along with the king, his consort Khentkaues II and his eldest son, Neferre. We believe that Neferre, which means "Re is beautiful", probably later changed his name to Neferefre which means, "Re is his beauty".

Finally, as the southeast corners of the Giza pyramids line up with each other and point to the ancient center of Heliopolis (the temple of Re and the famous center of the sun cult, Iunu), so too do the northwest corners of the main pyramids at Abusir. The first two pyramids on the line with Heliopolis at Abusir are those of Sahure and Neferirkare, with the unfinished pyramid being next. Therefore, it would seem that it belonged to the next king, who we believe to have been Neferefre. Other archaeological evidence has since strengthened the assumption that the pyramid is that of Neferefre.

The Czech team, now in the latter part of the 20th century, had a distinct technical advantage over Borchardt, They began their investigation using geophysical surveying, specifically with magnetometry. They needed no trench to do the initial work, for they were able to survey the front of the eastern wall of the structure from the surface. Their findings were both unambiguous and surprising, for the tests ascertained that under the sand lay a huge, highly articulated building of mud bricks, with a basic outline in the shape of the letter "T". This was the characteristic shape of mortuary temples in the 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty.

The excavations that followed, with intervals between individual archaeological seasons, lasted throughout the 1980s and 1990s, and produced a number of unexpected, and in many respects, unique archaeological discoveries involving the technical construction of the complex, the status of a royal tomb of that period and the organization of the royal mortuary cult, among others.

Furthermore, the unfinished nature of this complex probably held off tomb robbers and stone thieves from doing as much damage as they might have (though they did considerable damage), while at the same time allowing archaeologists to examine many previously unexplained questions concerning the building of a pyramid.

We now know that the site was first leveled and that bearings were taken for the base of the future pyramid. Then, in the middle of the base a rectangular trench was dug, east-west in orientation, in which the underground parts of the royal tomb were to be constructed. Next, a deep ditch was dug down into the trench from the north, intended to be the initial excavation for the passage leading down to the underground chambers.

It was also possible for the archaeologists to determine from this structure's unfinished nature that work on the substructure was planned to commence shortly after the work on the masonry of the first, lowest step of the superstructure.

This superstructure provided some intriguing and significant surprises for archaeologists. It had long been believed that pyramid cores were built by arranging the stone masonry of the stepped core into a system of slanted layers, inclined at an angle of about 75 degrees, leaning on a central stone spindle around the vertical axis of the pyramid. Hence, the effect was of masonry arranged into a system of inner casings resembling the layers of an onion. Interestingly, this theory was proposed by Richard Lepsius, based on a study of Neferirkare's pyramid and others at Abusir. Borchardt, who investigated the three largest Abusir pyramids, embraced this theory.

However, the unfinished nature of this pyramid and the cleaning of thick layers of debris covering the remnants of the king's burial chamber appears to refute this earlier theory. Here, the outer face of the first step of the pyramid core was formed by a retaining wall made of huge blocks of dark gray limestone up to five meters long, which were well bound together with clay. These were stacked to make the first core step about seven meters high. In a similar fashion, there was an inner retaining wall build out of smaller blocks, and making up the walls of the rectangular trench destined for the substructure of the tomb. Between these two walls there was, however, no accretion layers, but rather pieces of small, poor-quality limestone, sometimes stuck together with clay mortar and sand, and sometimes packed dry. Sometimes, there was even little compartments built of rough stone lumps and filled with rubble mixed occasionally with fragments of mud bricks and potsherds.

It is logical that other large Abusir pyramids had been built in the same way. Granted, though this method is sloppier and not as safe from the standpoint of stability, it is also less demanding in terms of time and material. Of course, this also explains why the Absuir pyramids, now stripped of their outer casing of fine white limestone and their cores exposed to all manner of erosion from both humans and mother nature, now resemble formless heaps of stone. It is not necessarily true that all of Egypt's Pyramids were built in this fashion.

Beginning work on the substructure shortly after work commenced on the superstructure was a logical step considering the gabled roof of the substructure chambers, which originally was almost certainly planned by the pyramid's architect, as in earlier Abusir pyramids, to consist of three layers, each made up of huge limestone blocks. Apparently though, we presume that the premature death of the ruler forced the builders to reduce the number of layers.

Nevertheless, the procedure needed to construct the roof of the substructure required the presence of compact masonry on the sides so that the huge blocks of the gabled roof could be anchored. Hence, the gabled roof was at the foundation level of the pyramid.

The early death of the king, seemingly before even the construction of the descending corridor and the substructure, resulted in a drastic change in the original building project. All of the underground rooms were quickly finished, and the vacant space above the gabled roof of the king's funerary apartment was filled with lumps of stone and rubble arranged in diagonally running walls crossing over the pyramid's center. Now the first step of the core resembled a truncated pyramid, which was then faced with blocks of fine white limestone. The outer surface, which had a sloping angle of about 78 degrees, was carefully smoothed down, and now what had been planned on as a pyramid became an atypically square mastaba.

Papyrus fragments unearthed in the structure's mortuary temple evidence that his complex was referred to the "Mound" by those who built it and later served in the king's funerary cult. Interestingly, the top surface of it was covered with a layer of clay several centimeters thick, onto which coarse gravel collected from the surrounding desert was applied. Hence, the roof of the "Mound" merged with the desert.

Unfortunately, while it may have made the structure less attractive to stone thieves than some of the more visible pyramids, it also made it easier to quarry stone from the structure. The thieves simply dug down from above, and even set up a workshop on the terrace for breaking up the fine white limestone lining the inner rooms. The structure was probably first plundered during the First Intermediate Period, so it became an easy target for stone quarrying in later years. We know, for example, that stones from this pyramid were used in some nearby shaft tombs by the Persians late in Egypt's history, and stones continued to disappear down into the 19th century.

The entrance to this pyramid is in the middle of its north side, close to ground level. It curves slightly to the southeast before reaching the antechamber, and in the lower regions is lined with pink granite and sealed with the same material. The huge barrier block made of pink granite is unique in this pyramid. It has no parallel among the royal tombs of the pyramid age. Normally, the portcullis (the blocking stones) would slide vertically. However, in the Pyramid of Neferefre, an ingenious system of pairs of stones with lugs and holes was used. This system was perhaps designed and used because the builders of Neferefre's tomb were aware of the fact that the monument would be easy prey to thieves from above.

Past the barrier, the antechamber and burial chamber in this pyramid are aligned very precisely east-west. Both of these rooms are lined with fine white limestone.

Obviously only scant remains of the original content of the pyramid were found. But of considerable importance, along with fragments of a pink sarcophagus, four alabaster canopic jars, alabaster containers and offerings, parts of a mummy were also found, including the complete left hand. Anatomical investigation seems to indicate that the mummy belongs to a 20 to 23 year old man, and other evidence suggests that these remains are probably those of Neferefre.

Also, a collection of builders' marks and inscriptions found on the masonry of the monument is of great historical importance. For example, an inscription referencing "the year of the first cattle count," which would correspond approximately to the second regnal year of the king, is very significant. It is very probable that in this year, or shortly thereafter, Neferefre died.

After the death of Neferefre, his heir was faced with some difficult tasks, for it was he who would be responsible for completing the tomb and, as the new divine pharaoh, to prepare the burial of his predecessor. Normally, the mortuary cult of a pharaoh was established in a large temple built in front of the east face of his pyramid, but in the short time remaining before Neferefre's burial it was evidently impossible to construct a fully articulated complex planned on the basis of defined religious principles.

Hence, on the east side of the same foundation on which the pyramid is built a very small mortuary temple, with a north-south axis, was hastily constructed of smaller blocks of fine white limestone. It stood on a five meter wide part of the pyramid's base platform which had originally been created by two layers of huge limestone blocks as a foundation for the pyramid's smooth limestone casing.

Because of the ruined state of this temple, we can only guess at much of its design. During this phase of construction, the mortuary temple had a very simple, rectangular design. The entrance was by a stairway and ramp on the southeast. The nucleus of the temple consisted of an open vestibule just behind the entrance, where the priests carried out the essential purification rituals that were required prior to entering the temple proper, which consisted of three rooms.

The most important of these rooms, as well as the largest, was the offering hall. It was originally a very dark room, which almost certainly had a false door probably made of red granite embedded on its western wall, though no evidence of it can now be found. Before it a depression in the floor marks the spot where an altar once stood. It is likely that the two narrow rooms at the sides of the offering chamber originally held the funerary boat, and perhaps other cult items. These was also a foundation deposit discovered in a small shaft under the temple paving that yielded a small bull's head, a bird sacrificed during the ceremonies connected with the foundation of the temple and miniature, symbolic clay vessels along with gray clay to seal the vessels.

We really do not know with any certainty who build the original small temple. Close to this original temple were found two clay sealings engraved with the Horus name, Sekhemkhau, belonging to the probable king Shepseskare, who might have been Neferefre's successor (or predecessor). If he was, however, he probably only ruled for a few months, at most, and perhaps only for a few weeks.

We do know that Nyuserre, Neferefre's probable brother, soon afterwards became king and was confronted with a number of difficult tasks. Luckily, he would rule Egypt for over thirty years, because he was faced with not only completing, at least provisionally, the tomb of his brother Neferefre, but also those of his father Neferirkare and his mother Khentkau II.

It was certainly Nyuserre who, showing considerable improvisation and originality, extended and basically modified the design of the earlier mortuary temple. The result was a huge and architecturally unique tomb complex that in design conception has no parallel among other pyramid temples. Now, it was named "Divine are the souls of Neferefre."

Now, this larger temple built almost entirely of mudbrick and with a rectangular ground plan stretched along the whole eastern side of the Unfinished Pyramid. Though less durable than stone, the mudbrick was less expensive and building with it took less time.

The entrance to this new temple was through a portico with two four-stemmed lotus limestone columns and was located right in the middle of the east facade. In the center of this addition, between the columned entrance and the offering hall of the older temple were, in addition to the access passage, what we believe to have been five storage annexes. This was a unique arrangement as other pyramid temples would have provided for an entrance chamber, an open court and perhaps a sanctuary with five niches for the pharaoh's cult statues in this space. After damage due to a minor accidental fire in the western part of the temple, two wooden cult boats were ritually buried and sprinkled with sand in one of these chambers.

There was a group of ten, two-story storage magazines in the north section with five units each arranged on either side of a passage. This number of units was no accident, as the temple maintained a priesthood divided into five groups of phylai. A large number of papyri were found in these northern magazines. In addition, there were also somewhat mysterious fragments of frit tables and faience ornaments unearthed in these chambers. The frit tablets were adorned with images of gods and the pharaoh accompanied by hieroglyphic inscriptions that were encrusted with a white paste and covered with a thin layer of gold leaf. Originally, they may have been intended to adorn cult objects and wooden boxes holding the cult equipment. The faience ornaments, on the other hand, perhaps decorated the large wooden symbolic vessels used in temple ceremonies. Everyday and ceremonial pottery, flint knives and blades, vessels made of diorite, alabaster, gabbro (a type of volcanic rock), slate, limestone and basalt, along with other remains were also discovered in the storerooms. There were also clay seals with imprints of inscriptions from cylindrical seals. They are of enormous value, as they record various information on what was in the storerooms, who was responsible for it and what needed to be obtained or released. The discoveries from Neferefre's temple have more than doubled the number of seals dating from the Old Kingdom. They allow archaeologists to reconstruct with some precision the organization of the administration, economic relations, the mode of keeping accounts and many other aspects of historical importance.

The southern part of the addition consists of a unique, east-west oriented hall with 20 six stemmed wooden lotus columns (though none of them have survived). We do believe that they were made of wood and then covered with a thin layer of stucco. This hypostyle hall was rectangular in design and divided up by four lines of five columns, aligned in the same east-west direction. These multicolored columns supported a flat wooden ceiling at a height of about four meters. Though nothing survives of the roof either, from remains of polychrome stucco discovered on the clay floor of the hall evidences that the ceiling was probably painted blue and adorned with gilded stars. This was the first hypostyle hall that we know of during the age of the pyramid builders. The hall probably served a religious function of which we are unaware.

About this hall were found fragments of statues of Neferefre, made of diorite, basalt, limestone, reddish quartzite and wood, and wooden figures of captive enemies, along with other cult objects. Among the statues were six relatively complete, though mostly broken statues of Neferefre. The most beautiful of these, was well as the smallest at about 35 centimeters high, was a rose-colored limestone statue unearthed in fragments and incomplete. It depicted the young pharaoh sitting on a throne and holding a mace, or hedj, the emblem of royal power to his chest. The king's head was originally adorned with a uraeus, and protected from behind by the outstretched wings of Horus, the falcon god. The largest statue made of the stone was about 80 centimeters high, though the largest statue of all was a life-size wooden one, though only fragments of it were unearthed. All of the statues display perfect workmanship in relation to the materials used and the actual depiction of the pharaoh. Now on permanent display in the Egyptian Antiquity Museum in Cairo, the represent the third largest collection of royal statuary from the Old Kingdom.

The small, wooden statues of the enemies of Egypt included those of Asians, Nubians and Libyans, kneeling with their hands tied behind their backs. These statues may have originally been situated on the royal throne or naos in which the statue of the pharaoh was located. Captured enemies kneeling before the pharaoh are a completely royal motif linked with the Ancient Egyptian concept the pharaohs ability to keep order in the universe.

Southeast of the mortuary temple, another surprise was unearthed. While the name, "the Sanctuary of the Knife," had been known from contemporary written sources, archaeological evidence had been lacking. Here, though, for the first time, was discovered a slaughterhouse for sacrificial animals. Built in two phases, it had a rectangular, north-south oriented plan with rounded corners. There was a relatively wide entrance from the north where the animals, mostly cattle, but also wild goats, gazelles and others, were led into the area. In the northwest part of the slaughterhouse, these animals would then have been slaughtered using sharp, flint knives. There were chambers in the northeastern corner of the area where the meet would than been cut up on a wooden chopping block. The rest of "the Sanctuary of the Knife" consisted of storage rooms. A staircase to the top of the slaughterhouse suggests that the roof terrace also had a purpose. Here, the meat may have been dried out.

The slaughterhouse was unexpectedly large. However, written evidence from a papyrus fragment explains that, on the occasion of a ten day religious festival thirteen bulls would be killed daily to supply the needs of the mortuary cult, which clearly attests to the large number of people directly or indirectly involved in Neferefre's cult. This largely unproductive use of people and resources may also help to explain the cause of the economic, political and social decline of Ancient Egypt at the end of the Old Kingdom.

The slaughterhouse actually only served its intended purpose for a brief period of time. Even during the reign of Nyuserre, when the temple was extended towards the east, Neferefre's mortuary cult was reorganized, and afterwards, the meat for the pharaoh's offering table was secured from elsewhere. At that time, "the Sanctuary of the Knife" simply became a large storage facility.

The last major building phase in the temple's development consisted of a new monumental entrance and a large open columned courtyard, at which point it acquired the characteristic "T" shape. At this point, the slaughterhouse became a part of the temple. The monumental entrance was situated on the east-west axis of the tomb complex, just as before. Its roof was likewise supported by a pair of six-stemmed columns of fine white limestone, though this time in the form of bundled papyrus stems. Of course, just like the lotus, the papyrus also had significant meaning to the ancient Egyptians as a symbol of resurrection, eternal life and permanent prosperity.

The new courtyard was influenced by religious beliefs, and it became an important place of royal mortuary cult ceremonies. Oriented in an east-west layout, it was rectangular, and around its sides was a flat wooden roof supported by 24 columns. Though none of the columns have survived, the circular imprint of the shafts on the few remaining limestone bases suggest that the columns were made of wood and probably made to resemble date palms, an ancient Egyptian symbol of fertility, abundance and peace.

No trace is left of the decorative theme adorning the walls of the courtyard, or of the altar, perhaps made of stone or alabaster, that likely stood in the northwest part of the courtyard and on which offerings were presented.

During the reign of Djedkare, housing for the priests was set up between the columns, and though they kept the cult alive, the existence of their housing inside the complex must have reduced the temple's status as well as accelerating its decay. Around the beginning of the 6th Dynasty during the reign of Teti, the entrance to "the Sanctuary of the Knife," along with this whole section of the complex was permanently walled up, and by the end of the same dynasty, under the reign of Pepi II, Neferefre's mortuary cult completely died out.

After good order was restored during the Middle Kingdom, the mortuary cults of Abusir, including that of Neferefre, were reestablished, but only for a short period of time. By the New Kingdom, the destruction of the complex began in earnest.

Pyramid of Neferirkare at Abusir

The 5th Dynasty pyramid of Neferirkare is the second pyramid at the southern end of Abusir, slightly to the north-east of Neferefre's unfinished monument. Now the most imposing and the tallest structure at Abusir with an estimated intended height of about 70m (it is even now about 45m) and a base of about 105m each side, the pyramid was built on Abusir's highest point. The monument's ancient name was 'Pyramid of the Ba of Neferirkare' and it was also unfinished during the king's lifetime. We are not certain of the length of Neferirkare's reign and figures between 14 and 24 years have been suggested - he was possibly quite old when he came to the throne. Neither is it known why he succeeded Sahure rather than Sahure's own son, though it is suggested by some Egyptologists that the two kings could have been brothers. His pyramid complex may have been completed by his successors but we know that part of the causeway and the valley temple were usurped by Nyuserre.

Neferirkare's pyramid, seen across the mortuary temple of Khentkaus II. The second pyramid at the southern end of Abusir, slightly to the north-east of Neferefre's unfinished monument

There is evidence to suggest that Neferirkare's pyramid was planned as a step pyramid and today four of the original six steps remain. At some point there was a change in design and the steps were filled with loose masonry and then converted to become a 'true' pyramid, enlarged and provided with a casing of red granite. The pyramid's entrance is in the centre of its northern side and a straight descending passage then took two turns before arriving at the vaulted antechamber and a burial chamber. The substructure was very badly damaged by stone robbers and no trace of a sarcophagus or burial equipment has been found.

A mortuary temple for the king, on the eastern side of the pyramid seems to have been hastily finished, and like that of Neferefre, the original stone offering hall and chapels or statue niches were enlarged and completed in mudbrick. The entrance to the mortuary temple led through a vestibule with six pairs of columns to a large central porticoed courtyard which in turn led to the inner areas and magazines.

In 1893 portions of rare 5th Dynasty hieratic papyri texts began to appear on the antiquities market and Ludwig Borchardt subsequently tracked down a few stray texts found by local villagers at Abusir. During excavations of Neferirkare's mortuary complex, it was discovered that the temple archive, dating mainly to the reign of Djedkare-Isesi, had been stored in administrative buildings here. The collection is known as the 'Abusir Papyri' and describes the cult administration, inventories, accounts and records of building work, as well as priestly duties and daily offerings. The archive represents a great deal of important knowledge about the economic history of the Old Kingdom pyramid cults. It was from this record that the pyramid complex of Neferefre, Neferirkare's eldest son, was discovered, as well as details describing six sun-temples at Abu Ghurob. Neferirkare's own sun temple had been completed within his lifetime and seems to have been the largest of these structures to the north of Abusir, but so far has not been found.

When Neferirkare died his causeway and valley temple had not been completed and they were usurped by Nyuserre later in 5th Dynasty, who incorporated them into his own burial complex.

Neferirkare was the first ruler to write his name in a double cartouche, one with his prenomen Kakai, and the other with a 'sa-Re' ('son of Re') name, Neferirkare, a custom which was then followed by all Egyptian kings.

Close to the south of Neferirkare's pyramid, the king constructed a small pyramid for his consort Khentkawes. The Queen's monument was not excavated at the time Ludwig Borchardt first investigated the pyramid of Neferirkare, and was dismissed as a mastaba until the Czech expedition took a closer look in the mid 1970s and discovered the small pyramid was more complicated than it looked.

The pyramid's remains today are only about 4m high after much damage by stone robbers, and the construction of the three level core and the subterranean chambers was of a simple design, with a descending passage leading from the north wall to a burial chamber. A fragment of a red granite sarcophagus and fragments of mummy wrappings were found in the burial chamber, confirming the evidence of the Queen's burial. Construction of the Queen's pyramid was halted, possibly at Neferirkare's death, and was resumed in Year 10 of an un-named king according to a block from the pyramid, and she is then named as 'King's Mother Khentkawes'. It would appear that the pyramid was completed by her son (Neferefre or Nyuserre?).

The owner had been named as 'King's Wife Khentkawes' on a graffito found by Perring, and the Czech team confirmed the name of Khentkawes (II) and her titles, which were inscribed on a pillar in her mortuary temple. There was also a relief in the courtyard depicting the Queen seated on a throne, holding a papyrus sceptre and wearing a uraeus - a symbol of kingship at that time. The mortuary temple built on the east side of her pyramid has been found to be quite extensive, although badly damaged. Constructed in two stages, the inner parts were of limestone, with an altar, a granite false door and magazines.

The additions to the mortuary temple were built of mudbrick and included the first example of a cult pyramids in an Old Kingdom queen's complex, which also had its own enclosure wall, emphasising the lady's importance. Khentkawes' name and titles are the same as a Queen Khentkawes (I), daughter of Menkaure, who owns a large mastaba at Giza and it was originally thought that the two monuments belonged to the same queen - both of whom are depicted wearing the royal uraeus. Egyptologists now suggest that the two ladies may have been related, but must have been separated by one or two generations. They both seemed to have played an important role as a regent to a young king.

In the mortuary temple of Khentkawes another collection of papyrus was found, similar to those from Neferirkare and Neferefre's temples (the Abusir Papyri), providing more details of the function of the mortuary cult.

Pyramids Complex of Nyuserre at Abusir

Nyuserre had to compromise on his pyramid at Abusir. We believe it was the last of the egypt royal pyramids built there. Where he to have built his pyramid on the basic axis established at Abusir, it would have been located deep in the desert and its building costs would have been excessive. He chose therefore to build it almost against the north wall of Neferirkare's mortuary temple. In doing so, the pyramid, named "The (cult) places of Nyuserre are enduring", was somewhat boxed in. Otherwise, the pyramid is fairly typical.

While Lepsius displayed the pyramid on his map of the field, he apparently did little investigation of this pyramid. Perring also examined the pyramid, but it was Borchardt that initially carried out a fundamental investigation of the site.

The pyramid of Niuserre.

The Valley Temple: Few of the valley temples in Egypt remain because of their proximity to the Nile. Likewise, Niuserre's is almost gone. Its floor was originally around five meters below the present ground level and was probably built upon a foundation originally laid by Neferirkare, as was the causeway. It, like Sahure's valley temple, had two columned entrances. The west entrance had two colonnades with four pink granite columns in the shape of a six papyrus stems. They bear Nyuserre's names and titles, along with representations of Upper and Lower Egypt (like those in the mortuary temple courtyard). This entrance led to a harbor ramp, and was paved with basalt. There was originally a granite dado, over which were decorations in polychrome reliefs. There was a four columned west portico, reached by an outside stairway.

In the middle of Nyuserre's valley temple there were numerous statues at one time. These included statures of Nyuserre himself in three niches on the west wall. However, there were also apparently statues of captive enemies, an alabaster head of Queen Reputnebu who we believe was his consort, and a pink granite statue of a lion. Only fragments of these statues have been discovered, and only fragments of the decorative reliefs on the temple walls remain. The wall reliefs would appear to be of Nyuserre smiting his enemies, and of a goddess suckling the king.

The Causeway: The causeway between the valley temple and the mortuary temple has not been fully investigated, and there may still be inscribed blocks laying beneath the sand. Actually, part of the causeway lead to the mortuary temple and a lower section led to Neferirkare's pyramid. It was decorated in a very similar manner to Sahure's causeway. The causeway was originally built up to transverse the steep slope and uneven terran, but apparently the material used for this was usurped to build tombs for the priests who served Nyuserre's cult during the 20th Dynasty.

The Mortuary Temple: The mortuary temple is rather small, and unlike others at Abusir, is shaped in the form of an L, though it is located on the eastern side of the pyramid as was customary. Here, the land descends slightly so in order to level the area out, the foundation surface was built up using rough masonry chambers filled with rubble and sand.

The outer walls of the temple complex were slightly inclined and bore a concave cornice. Just inside the entrance to the temple was a stairway to the roof terrace and a long, decorated, entrance corridor paved in basalt with a vaulted ceiling. There was a dado on the side wall made of pink granite. Only fragments of the walls remain. There were five storage annexes on either side of the entrance corridor.

The entrance corridor leads to a courtyard that was also paved in basalt and had sixteen six-stemmed papyrus columns made of pink granite. The column shafts have wavy lines in bas relief that give them a realistic quality. The middle of the column shafts are inscribed with the Nyuserre's names and titles along with symbolic representations of Upper (vulture goddess Nekhbet) and Lower (cobra goddess Wadjet) Egypt. The ambulatory supported by the columns had an astronomical theme, decorated in stars. There was once an alabaster alter in the northwest corner of the courtyard, but only fragments of it have been found. It was decorated with offering scenes, depictions of the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, along with other images.

A central corridor behind the courtyard separates the outer and inner parts of the temple. A niche in the northwest corner once housed a unique, pink granite statue of a recumbent lion meant to guard the inner part of the temple. Only fragments of the statue survive, and are located in the Egyptian Antiquities Museum.

Numerous fragments of reliefs were found within the inner part of the temple, but it is impossible to tell from which room they originally came. Some reveal Nyuserre fighting enemies. Other scenes include the founding of the temple, offerings being delivered, and the sacrificing of animals.

Within the inner part of the temple was a chapel with five niches, but reconstructing the layout is very near impossible due the chapel's advanced state of destruction. The chapel was serviced by a cluster of storage annexes entered from the chapels northwest corner. From the chapel, a small, square, decorated chamber with a single central column and raised floor leads to the offering hall. This antechamber was repeated in later mortuary temples until the reign of Senusret I.

The offering hall is directly on the east-west axis of the temple complex just next to the pyramid, with an alter and false door for the deceased at its rear. The walls of the offering hall were decorated with ritual scenes related to Nyuserre's death. The vaulted ceiling had astronomical decorations in colored, bas-relief. To the north is another cluster of storage annexes that served the offering hall.

One significant innovation of this mortuary temple were massive structures on the northeast and southeast corners. Here was found builder inscriptions and a reference to Sahure's sun temple, which has never been found. These tower like structures may have been a preview of the pylons built in later temples. The walls of these structures was slightly sloped and supported a concave cornice. Atop each was a terrace, arrived at via a narrow stairway.

The Pyramid: The pyramid has a seven step core of local limestone. We estimate that it was originally 52 meters (173 feet) high, with a base length of 81 meters (270 feet). The outer mantle is made of fine white limestone and for stability, the corners of the pyramid are anchored to the foundation.

The entrance was in the middle of the north side at ground level. The entrance opens up to a corridor lined with fine white limestone and reinforced with pink granite at each end. This corridor was divided by a barrier with two granite plugging blocks. The corridor ascending to the vestibule. After the vestibule, the next corridor is larger then the first and turns somewhat east before arriving at the antechamber, after which is the burial chamber. There were no remains found of the king in his pyramid.

The burial chamber is located slightly beneath ground level and under the foundation stones. Both the antechamber and the burial chamber have a saddle ceiling, which was not uncommon at this time. This ceiling consists of three layers of huge limestone blocks set in place from above. Limestone fragments filled the area between each layer of the ceiling, helping shift the weight and stabilizing the structure, particularly during earthquakes. We believe that fragmentary scenes within the burial chamber describe military campaigns against Libyans.

About the pyramid is a limestone paved courtyard which is narrower on the south side (due to Neferirkare's mortuary temple) then on the north side. There is also a cult pyramid that Borchardt mistakenly described as a queens' pyramid.

Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir

All of the pyramid complexes at Abusir are ruined, as much by stone thieves as from the ravages of time. Sahure's complex, which he called "Sahure's soul shines", was probably the first pyramid built on the pyramid field at Abusir, and is significant both because of its construction materials and the kind of decorative reliefs used within the complex. It was famous for its art in antiquity, and we today recognize the complex as another milestone of ancient Egyptian tomb architecture.

Sahure's pyramid and surrounding complex

Specifically, the pyramid is smaller than previous ones, using a reduced volume of material for its construction in comparison with 4th Dynasty examples, though this was compensated for by better quality and more diverse types of stone. There was also a striking change in the layout of the mortuary temple and at the same time, the relief decorations of the mortuary and valley temples and the causeway are so rich in subject matter, artistic conception and the quality of workmanship that is represents the highest level of the genre that has yet been discovered from the Old Kingdom. Originally, there may have been some 10,000 square meters of such reliefs in these architectural elements, so it is no wonder that Sahure's pyramids complex, including its architectural plan and scheme of relief decorations, became the conceptual starting point for the designers of later royal tombs of the 5th and 6th Dynasties.

The early Egyptologist, Perring, first investigated the pyramid, and shortly after him, Lepsius also examined the structure, but perhaps because the pyramid looked so ruined, little attention was given to its excavation. Later, de Morgan reopened the entry corridor, but he too showed a lack of interest in further explorations. Then, in the 20th century, Ludwig Borchardt finally recognized the pyramid's significance. He wrote a two-volume study, Das Grabdenkmal des Konigs Sahure ("The Funerary Monument of the King Sahure") that created a real interest within the Egyptology community. For many years, his work on the pyramid seemed complete, even though the pyramid was the subject of further studies.

But in 1994 when it was decided to open the Abusir pyramid field to tourists, new discoveries were made. Several of the monuments at Abusir, and particularly the pyramids complex of Sahure, were the subjects of restoration efforts. During this process, several huge blocks in the upper part of Sahure's causeway were discovered to be decorated with iconographically and artistically unique reliefs. They created a new understanding of the decorative program within the complex.

Surrounding Elements: Sahure's valley temple has two landing ramps, one giving access from the east and one from the south. As a rule, there would only be one, an eastern landing ramp, allowing access from the Nile by way of an artificial channel. However, the reason for this has not been established.

The valley temple has a long axis oriented north-south with a southern and eastern ramp. Eight pink granite columns adorned the temples eastern entrance, while the temple's south portico only had four such columns. The valley temple had a basalt floor, decorated walls and an astronomical ceiling. Both entrances lead to a central room within the temple with walls that are also decorated with polychrome reliefs. The predominant theme here is of the king in the likeness of a sphinx trading over a series of captive and bound enemies of Egypt. The central room in turn leads to the causeway that then leads to the mortuary temple. The room also had a stairway to a roof terrace.

Little remains of the causeway except for the large, rough limestone blocks of its base ramp. The corridor was originally roofed and had walls decorated in polychrome base relieve and a ceiling with small openings for illumination. The causeway connected the pyramid and mortuary temple to a valley temple that today is much ruined.

In 1994, Zahi Hawass decided to clean and reconstruct parts of Sahure's causeway, but in doing so he encountered a few surprises. While cleaning the upper part of the causeway, huge limestone blocks were unearthed that contained iconographically and artistically unique reliefs. Among others, some of the reliefs depict the bringing of the gilded capstone for Sahure's pyramid, the celebrations and performances accompanying the completion of the pyramid, and perhaps most importantly, a group of impoverished Bedouins that hunger has caused to be only skin and bones.

The scene depicting emaciated Bedouins is mirrored in what was once considered unique images in the Causeway of Unas's Pyramid. Until recently, that scene was considered proof of the decline of the standard of living among oasis dwellers in the Western Desert, resulting from the end of the wet phase of the Sahara and the beginning of an arid, hot climate in the middle of the third millennium BC. However, some now believe, based on the broader context of other scenes from Sahure's causeway, that the impoverished Bedouins may have been brought into the pyramid town to demonstrate the hardship and dangers the pyramid builders had to contend with in brining better quality stone from the remote, wild and inaccessible mountains.

The mortuary temple, as is common, lies on the east side of the pyramid on a foundation of two layers of rough limestone blocks. It is divided into an inner section and outer section by a central corridor. This corridor divided the complex into public and private sections, but also served as a central lane connecting the pyramid courtyard and the small cult pyramid. The corridor was paved in basalt, and its limestone walls have scenes of sea battles and expeditions to Asia, though only fragments remain. A stairway at the northern end led to a roof terrace.

In the outer part of the temple one finds the entrance hall and the open, columned courtyard. The entrance hall, built of fine quality limestone had an excellent decorative program. In these ruins, a pink granite dado were found.

The open courtyard contained 16 monolithic pink granite columns, each of which was shaped like the trunk and crown of a palm tree, atop a floor of irregular black basalt slabs. To the ancient Egyptians, these symbolized fertility and eternal life, and some Egyptologists believe that the open courtyard represented the sacred palm grove in Buto, Egypt's ancient "national cemetery". The columns were decorated with the names and title of Sahure, along with the goddess Nekhbet in the southern part of the courtyard, and the cobra goddess Wadjet in the northern half. At one time the columns supported an architrave bearing the royal titles, and on it rested limestone ceiling slabs decorated with stars. On the courtyard walls we find the scenes, though very fragmented, of Sahure's victory of the Asians and Libyans, along with the spoils of those battles. In the northwest corner of the courtyard once stood an alabaster altar with scenes depicting the symbols of Egyptian unification (between northern and southern Egypt), along with scenes of offerings made to Sahure. Between the columns there may have originally stood statues of the pharaoh.

A corridor encircles the courtyard, and on its walls are scenes of Sahure fishing and hunting birds and other desert game. There is also a significant scene of the royal entourage and under the depiction of Neferirkare, we find text that was added, stating, "Neferirkare, King of Upper and Lower Egypt". This is one reason many Egyptologists feel that Neferirkare rather then Shepseskare Ini succeeded Sahure.

This courtyard served more then the cult of Sahure. A thousand years later, it also served the cult of Sekhmet, probably because of a fine relief sculpture of the lion goddess. Her consort was Ptah, and together they were the principle gods of nearby Memphis. Later still, the early Christians in Egypt also founded a church in this courtyard.

The entrance to the inner section of the tomb is a stairway located in the middle of the west wall of the central, dividing corridor. The stairway passes between two six-stalk papyrus pillars that are set into deep niches. They supported an architrave, part of which has been found in an oil press at St. Jeremiah monastery in Saqqara.

The stairs lead to an important section of the temple, a chapel with five niches. The statues that once stood in the niches are all probably destroyed. The walls of this chapel were covered in decorated limestone, with the exception of the niches in the west wall and the dado. The niches and dado are covered in pink granite. The limestone ceiling was decorated with an astronomical theme and the floor was made of alabaster.

A path from the rear of the chapel, which only the funerary priests could use, leads to the Offering Hall. This was probably the most important room in the temple to the King's cult. This room too has an alabaster floor with an astronomical ceiling decorated with stars. Here, the walls are decorated with scenes depicting divinities carrying offerings for the dead king. This room sits adjacent to the East wall of the pyramid and there is an enormous, granite false door on the rooms west wall. The door should have had inscriptions of magical spells, and the names and titles of Sahure, but it does not. This has led some Egyptologists to believe that it was once covered in either copper or gold that was inscribed with this information. The ancient Egyptians believed that the spirit of the dead king would come here through the false door for his meals. Food offerings stood ready for him on a stone alter.

Annexes adjoin the Offering Hall and were probably used for storage and other functions connected to the hall. Some of these rooms were plumbed with copper pipe, with drainage to a central canal paved over with limestone. In fact, there was some 180 meters of pipe running through the temple. Another section of the annex was designated as a treasure chamber, where ritual objects used by the cult priests were stored. Parts of the southern section of annexes include two storied storage chambers.

Causeway columns in front of Sahure Pyramid at Abusir.

The southern end of the central corridor also leads to the main pyramid courtyard, the smaller cult pyramid, and to a portico with two pink, granite columns that then led to a necropolis. The necropolis is most likely where Sahure's close relatives are buried, though it has not been investigated.

The enclosed, cult pyramid, though small in comparison to the main pyramid, nevertheless has two steps and an inner chamber, though nothing was found inside. Though the cult pyramid was greatly damaged by stone thieves, we can tell that the entrance corridor first descended before rising into the inner chamber.

The Pyramid: Due to the pyramids complex's ruined condition, exact specifications and the pyramids appearance is impossible to determine. The pyramid is probably founded upon a platform made of at least two layers of limestone blocks, but this assumption relies on the study of other relics in the area, as the foundation has never been investigated. The core was built of horizontal layers of rough limestone blocks and it originally had six core layers. The casing was of fine, white limestone from the quarries near modern Maasara. It is interesting to note that a design flaw within the pyramid's architecture resulted in the southeast corner being 1.58 meters too far to the east. Therefore, the pyramid is not completely square.

The entrance to the pyramid is on the north face just above ground level. At first there is a short, descending corridor that leads to a small vestibule. Behind the vestibule is a pink granite portcullis, after which the next corridor has a gradual incline, becoming level near the antechamber. The antechamber and burial chamber are so ruined that their exact plan cannot be determined, though the antechamber lies directly beneath the pyramid's vertical axis.