Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt, Time in Ancient Egypt from 21st Dynasty to 25th Dynasty

Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

The Third Intermediate Period refers to the time in Ancient Egypt from the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BC to the foundation of the 26th Dynasty by Psamtik I in 664 BCE, following the expulsion of the Nubian rulers of the 25th Dynasty.

This period is characterized by the country's fracturing kingship. Even in Ramesses' day, the 20th Dynasty of ancient Egypt was losing its grip on power in the city of Thebes, whose priests were becoming increasingly powerful. After his death, his successor Smendes I ruled from the city of Tanis, and the High Priests of Amun at Thebes ruling the south of the country. In fact, this division was less significant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came from the same family.

The History

At the death of Ramesses XI, the throne passed to Smendes, a northern relative of the High Priest of Amun. Smendes' reign (ca. 1070-1044 B.C.) initiated some 350 years of politically divided rule and diffused power, known as the Third Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt. The Third Intermediate Period laid the foundation for many changes that are observable in art and culture throughout the first millennium. Though its details are still not fully clear, this period of Egyptian history can be divided into three general stages. During the first of these, 21st Dynasty (ca. 1070-945 B.C.), Egypt was governed by pharaohs ruling from Tanis in the eastern Delta and by the High Priests of Amun ruling from Thebes. Relations between the two centers of power were generally good.

The second stage began in ca. 945 B.C., when the throne passed to a powerful family of Libyan descent, ruling in the eastern Delta. Egypt's erstwhile western enemies now became its rulers for the next two centuries (22th Dynasty, ca. 945-712 B.C.). Despite their Libyan origin, these pharaohs ruled as native Egyptians. The first of them, Shoshenq I (ca. 945-924 B.C.), is the most important. He appears in the Bible under the name Shishak, the Egyptian ruler who sacked Jerusalem in Year 5 of the reign of Solomon's son, Rehoboam.

Under Takelot II (ca. 850-825 B.C.), the control of 22nd Dynasty began to weaken, and a new power center, now known as 23rd Dynasty 23 (ca. 818-712 B.C.) arose in the eastern Delta. The two dynasties governed Egypt simultaneously for approximately ninety years, the final stage of the Third Intermediate Period. By the end of the eighth century B.C., Egypt had fragmented further, particularly in the north, where a host of small local rulers held sway: in the eastern Delta, Osorkon IV (ca. 730-712 B.C.) of 22nd Dynasty and Iuput II (ca. 754-712 B.C.) of 23rd Dynasty; in the western Delta and Memphis, Tefnakht (ca. 724-717 B.C.) of 24th Dynasty, ruling from Sais; in Hermopolis, a local kinglet named Namlot (ca. 740 B.C.); and at Heracleopolis, another local ruler, named Peftjaubast (ca. 740-725 B.C.).

Preoccupied with internal rivalries during the Third Intermediate Period, Egypt gradually lost its traditional control of Nubia, located to its south. About 760 B.C., an independent native dynasty began to rule Nubia, or Kush, from Napata in what is now the Sudan and extended its influence into southern Egypt. In ca. 729 B.C., the Egyptian rulers Namlot and Tefnakht joined forces to extend their control farther into Upper Egypt. The Nubian king Piankhy perceived this as a threat to his independence and moved against the Egyptian coalition. His invasion proved successful, and the various Egyptian rulers submitted to his leadership at Memphis in ca. 728 B.C. This event marked the inception of seventy-five years of Nubian rule in ancient Egypt.

The country was firmly reunited by the 22nd Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from Ancient Libya. This brought stability to the country for well over a century, but after the reign of Osorkon II, particularly, the country had effectively splintered into two states with Shoshenq III of the 22nd Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot II and his son Osorkon B (the future Osorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt.

In Thebes, a civil war engulfed the city between the forces of Pedubast, who had proclaimed himself Pharaoh versus the existing line of Takelot II / Osorkon B. These two factions squabbled consistently and the conflict was only resolved in Year 39 of Shoshenq III when Osorkon B comprehensively defeated his enemies. He proceeded to found the Upper Egyptian Libyan Dynasty of Osorkon III - Takelot III - Rudamun, but this kingdom quickly fragmented after Rudamun's death with the rise of local city states under kings such Peftjaubast of Herakleopolis, Nimlot of Hermopolis, and Ini at Thebes.

The Nubian kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and political instability. Prior to Piye's Year 20 campaign into Egypt, the previous Nubian ruler - Kashta - had already extended his kingdom's influence over into Thebes when he compelled Shepenupet, the serving Divine Adoratice of Amun and Takelot III's sister, to adopt his own daughter Amenirdis, to be her successor.

Then, 20 years later, around 732 BC his successor, Piye, marched North and defeated the combined might of several native Egyptian rulers such as Peftjaubast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, Iuput II of Leontopolis and Tefnakht of Sais. Piye established the 25th Dynasty and appointed the defeated rulers as his provincial governors. He was succeeded first by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa respectively.

The international prestige of Egypt had declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen firmly into the sphere of influence of Assyria and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states. Taharqa's reign and that of his successor, (his cousin) Tanutamun, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians against whom there were numerous victories, but ultimately Thebes was occupied and Memphis sacked. The dynasty ended with its rulers stuck in the relative backwater of the city of Napata.

Instead Egypt was ruled (from 664 BCE, a full eight years prior to Tanutamun's death) by the 26th Dynasty, client kings established by the Assyrians. Psamtik I was the first to be recognised by them as the King of the whole of Egypt, and he brought increased stability to the country in a 54 year reign from the city of Sais. Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt into another period of unparalleled peace and prosperity from 610-526 BC.

Unfortunately for his dynasty, a new power was growing in the Near East - Persia. Pharaoh Psamtik III had succeeded his father Ahmose II scarcely a year in 526 BC before he had to face the might of Persia at Pelusium. The Persians had already taken Babylon and Egypt was no match. Psamtik was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, but ultimately he was imprisoned and executed at Susa, capital of the Persian king Cambyses, who now assumed the formal title of Pharaoh.

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